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Brain Motor Centers and Pathways
Published in Nassir H. Sabah, Neuromuscular Fundamentals, 2020
From a functional point of view, the cerebral cortex can be divided into primary areas and association areas. The primary areas are those where sensory signals are first received by the cortex or from which output signals of the cortex directly emanate. Examples of primary sensory areas are the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe (Figure 1.9), the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe, and the primary somatosensory cortex in the postcentral gyrus of the anterior portion of the parietal lobe (Figure 12.1). An example of a primary output area is the primary motor cortex in the precentral gyrus of the posterior portion of the frontal lobe, the primary motor cortex being separated from the primary somatosensory cortex by the central sulcus (Figure 12.1). The primary motor cortex is also referred to as the somatomotor cortex, M1, or Brodmann’s area 4. In contrast, association areas, which constitute a considerably larger area of the cortex, are those areas where signals from different sensory modalities are integrated, or areas associated with “higher mental functions”.
Neurosurgery: Supratentorial tumors
Published in Hemanshu Prabhakar, Charu Mahajan, Indu Kapoor, Essentials of Geriatric Neuroanesthesia, 2019
Monica S. Tandon, Kashmiri Doley, Daljit Singh
The primary sensory areas (somatosensory cortex [parietal lobe], visual area [occipital lobe], auditory areas [temporal lobe, insular cortex]) receive signals from the sensory nerves and tracts through the relay nuclei in the thalamus.
Synopsis of the Nervous System
Published in Walter J. Hendelman, Peter Humphreys, Christopher R. Skinner, The Integrated Nervous System, 2017
Walter J. Hendelman, Peter Humphreys, Christopher R. Skinner
The portions of the cerebral cortex that are not related directly to sensory and motor functions are known as association areas. Areas adjacent to the primary sensory areas are involved in the elaboration and interpretation of the sensory input to that area.
Neural correlates of prediction violations in boys with Tourette syndrome: Evidence from harmonic expectancy
Published in The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 2018
Judith Buse, Christian Beste, Veit Roessner
The ACC plays an important role in attention control, especially in the presence of conflict and the processing of novel, infrequent or unexpected stimuli (Yoshiura et al. 1999; Bush et al. 2000; Milham et al. 2001; Ardekani et al. 2002; Fichtenholtz et al. 2004). The ACC coordinates and integrates multiple attention systems (Peterson et al. 2002). It generates a top-down control signal, which is transmitted to primary sensory areas and neocortical regions including the premotor cortex and the temporo-parietal areas. Attentional signals originating from prefrontal regions therefore influence attentional processes in posterior brain areas (Knudsen 2007). Therefore, our findings of TS-related alterations in ACC activation are well in line with the studies reporting alterations of the attention system and altered processing of predictable and unpredictable stimuli (van Woerkom et al. 1988; van Woerkom et al. 1994; Johannes et al. 1997; Johannes et al. 2001). The conclusion that our findings indicate TS-related alterations of attention allocation are underpinned by the correlations between the brain activations and the attention problems scores of the clinical measures (positive correlations between attention problems and brain activation to predictable stimuli and negative correlations in the case of unpredictable stimuli).
Caloric and galvanic vestibular stimulation for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease: rationale and prospects
Published in Expert Review of Medical Devices, 2021
Mechanoreceptors within these structures sense extremely fine and brief movements which in turn stimulate action potentials that are propagated along the eighth cranial nerve to the vestibular brainstem nuclei. These nuclei receive and send projections from/to the cerebellum as well as from/to neighboring nuclei involved in limbic (such as the raphe nuclei and locus coeruleus) and autonomic regulation [see 2,3]. Every vestibular nucleus projects to at least several thalamic nuclei (in many cases contralaterally if not bilaterally) which thereon link to numerous cortical destinations including the central parietal and occipital cortices, orbito-frontal, insular and temporal cortices [2]. These areas are principally involved in spatial, interoceptive and egocentric cognition, qualities that underpin the very concept of self. No brainstem fibers appear to project to a primary vestibular cortex or region that shows the domain-specific trademarks of hierarchical or topographical organization associated with other primary sensory areas. In non-human primates, a parieto-insular vestibular cortex has however been identified [4] and in humans, analogous activations can be seen in the temporoparietal junction, posterior insula, and posterior parietal cortex although most cells in this region are bi-modal or multi-modal [5–7]. This multi-sensory feature is one of several that distinguishes the vestibular system from all other sensory systems, with multimodal interactions (incorporating multi-sensory convergence, transformation and modulation) between visual, somatosensory and vestibular signals occurring in almost all vestibular relays [8].
Developing an optimized strategy with transcranial direct current stimulation to enhance the endogenous pain control system in fibromyalgia
Published in Expert Review of Medical Devices, 2018
Dante Duarte, Luis Eduardo Coutinho Castelo-Branco, Elif Uygur Kucukseymen, Felipe Fregni
Fibromyalgia is a high burden in patient’s biopsychosocial well-being and interface with morbidity as well as frequent health care demands. Common pharmacological interventions have low effectiveness and potential side effects;Evidence suggests that the pathophysiology of fibromyalgia is related to the dysfunction in the endogenous pain control system that involves a disruptive perception of peripheral pain signals by the primary sensory areas and limbic system. Regarding this complex condition novel multimodal interventions aimed at specific targets in the central nervous system are needed;Transcranial direct current stimulation combined with aerobic exercise can act synergistically in the endogenous pain control system to restore the homeostasis and improve pain symptoms in fibromyalgia;Anodal stimulation of M1 is an ideal target in the pain neuromatrix acting in a top-down fashion (from cortical: primary and sensory motor cortex, cingulate cortex and insula; to subcortical: thalamus) enhancing neural excitability and complemented by a ‘bottom-up’ effect (from subcortical: thalamus, cerebellum to cortical: sensorimotor cortex, insula and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) elicited by aerobic exercise;Proper assessment of the interventions effects by neurophysiological markers such as conditioned pain modulation, temporal slow pain summation, transcranial magnetic stimulation and electroencephalography can help understand the pathophysiology of fibromyalgia and the neurobiological changes caused by the intervention;A clinical trial was designed to test the hypothesis that optimized tDCS with aerobic exercise can maximize the restoration of the pain endogenous control system by modulating activity in a widespread neural network providing pain relief in patients with fibromyalgia.