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Neonates
Published in Clete A. Kushida, Sleep Deprivation, 2004
Neonatal REM sleep has been hypothesized to play a role in stimulating brain development (12). However, the alteration of molecules during neonatal REM sleep is still unknown. Recent study indicates that both 5-HT dorsal raphé nuclei (DRN) neurons and noradrenergic locus ceruleus (LC) neurons are locomotor-activity dependent (138,139). Atonia induced by electrical stimulation of the pontine inhibitory area and gigantocellular reticular nucleus causes a reduction in the activity of the LC (139). 5-HT DRN neurons cease firing by disfacilitation during REM sleep (140). These findings suggest that abundant phasic activities, which appear during neonatal REM sleep, may result in higher levels of brain 5-HT, noradrenaline, and other neurotrophic factors such as nerve growth factors (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factors (BDNF) compared with the levels in quiet sleep. The release of 5-HT, neurotrophic factors, and perhaps other unknown signal pathways stimulated by REM phasic activities facilitate the development of neural systems involved in the regulation of wake capacity and voluntary behavioral activity-related subservice systems, such as respiration and cardiovascular function. This hypothesis may not be easily accepted because 5-HT level is lowest during REM sleep, higher during NREM sleep, and is the highest during wakefulness in adulthood. The argument is that the evidence that 5-HT level is the lowest during REM sleep is acquired in adulthood, and that abundance of REM-phasic activities is a feature of the neonate rather than the adult. However, this hypothesis needs to be empirically tested.
Exploring of the Unpredicted Effects of Olfactory Network Injuries on Mammary Gland Degeneration: A Preliminary Experimental Study
Published in Journal of Investigative Surgery, 2019
Erdem Karadeniz, Mehmet Nuri Kocak, Ali Ahiskalioglu, Kemal Alp Nalci, Sevilay Ozmen, Mufide Nuran Akcay, Nazan Aydin, Mehmet Dumlu Aydin, Ahmet Hacimuftuoglu
Higher autonomic brain centers send their axons from several brainstem nuclei including the noradrenergic cell group, the caudal raphe nuclei, the nucleus of the solitary tract, the area postrema, the gigantocellular reticular nucleus, and the locus coeruleus for regulating the network of mammary gland functions. These nuclear centers send milk-synthesizing and lactating information to both the chemical and neural pathways of mammary glands. The central autonomic nuclei are connected with the preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic and somatomotor system innervating the mammary gland.24 Parasympathetic impulses are probably carried by vagal nerves. Vagal nerves may have an important role in the development of secondary sex organogenesis in females.13 Erin et. al., speculate that vagal nerve hypofunctions or dysfunctions may cause mammary gland dysfunctions.14 Developing vagal hypotony could trigger depression, sterility, and milk production in reproductive and lactation cycles and immunodeficiency in breast tissue.15 Interestingly, because high vagal activity provides excellent immune system for breast, vagal innervation is required for enough production of immunoglobulin by the breast. It is an important knowledge that stress related decreased milk production may result from stress induced vagal hypotony.25 In the light of this knowledge, we provide that there may be a functional olfactory–vagal network in females and olfactory–sacral parasympathetic network in rats have important roles on mammary gland functions which has not been mentioned before.