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Nonrenewable Energy Sources
Published in John C. Ayers, Sustainability, 2017
In the Appalachian Mountains mountaintop removal mining is the preferred method of coal extraction. It involves using dynamite for piecemeal removal of the parts of a mountain that overlie a coal seam. Only recently has our society become aware of the extensive environmental and safety problems associated with mountaintop removal. The main problem is that miners dump the overburden into stream channels, contaminating the streams and blocking their flow. A study of the effects of mountaintop removal mining with valley fills (Palmer et al. 2010) concluded that it can cause permanent loss of ecosystems in the filled valleys; that the frequency and magnitude of floods downstream of mined areas increase; and that valley fill can contaminate water and lead to decreases in stream biodiversity, even long after mining ceases. Even streams draining reclaimed areas show continuing evidence of water quality degradation (Lindberg et al. 2011). Of particular concern is the mobilization of the heavy metal selenium, which was found at unsafe levels in 73 out of 78 surveyed streams (Palmer et al. 2010). Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of selenium have led to the publication of safety advisories that recommend limiting consumption of fish caught in affected states such as Kentucky and West Virginia. Residents of areas affected by mountaintop removal mining with valley fills have higher rates of cancer, chronic heart, lung, and kidney disease, and mortality than the general population, and postmining mitigation has not been effective at reducing environmental and health problems (Palmer et al. 2010).
Introduction
Published in Benjamin K. Sovacool, The Routledge Handbook of Energy Security, 2010
Figure I.7 shows that coal prices have also been volatile, jumping from $50 per short ton in Central Appalachia in November 2007 to $140 per short ton in August 2008, almost tripling in nine months.124 Transportation bottlenecks and demand surges in developing countries such as India and China were partly to blame. From 2001 to 2006, coal use around the world grew by 30 percent, and 88 percent of this increase came from Asia (with 72 percent of the increase from China alone).125 In 2004 China shifted from a net exporter to an importer of coal, creating a severe shortage of oceanworthy bulk carriers and causing the global price of coal (as well as other commodities such as iron, ore, and steel) to jump drastically as freight prices soared.126 Other contributing factors included (a) dwindling reserves of coal in some parts of the United States and Europe, (b) constricted rail service, (c) flooding and hurricanes hitting barge routes, (d) bankruptcies and resulting consolidation and restructuring within the industry, (e) permitting, bonding, and insurance issues, (f) mine closures, (g) more stringent environmental regulations concerning mine planning and the posting of reclamation bonds, and (h) restrictions on mountain top removal.127 A comprehensive International Energy Agency (IEA) study revealed that more than half of coal-powered plants reported significant price fluctuations in coal, varying by almost a factor of 20.128
Nonrenewable Energy Resources
Published in Julie Kerr, Introduction to Energy and Climate, 2017
There are two principal mining methods: surface mining and underground mining. Surface mining is often used when coal is less than 61 meters underground. In surface mining, large machines remove the topsoil and layers of rock known as overburden to expose coal seams. Mountaintop removal is a form of surface mining where the tops of mountains are dynamited and removed to access coal seams. Once the coal is removed, the disturbed area may be covered with topsoil for planting grass and trees. Surface mines produce most of the coal in the United States because surface mining is less expensive than underground mining.
Rural and urban differences in prenatal exposure to essential and toxic elements
Published in Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 2018
Jesse N. Cottrell, D’Andrea S. Thomas, Brenda L. Mitchell, Jason E. Childress, Diane M. Dawley, Lawrence E. Harbrecht, David A. Jude, Monica A. Valentovic
There is some controversy regarding the effect of mountaintop coal mining and association with birth defects. The overall rate of birth defects in the United States is approximately 3% (Control 2008). The leading cause of death among infants is birth defects, accounting for 20% of all infant deaths (Matthews, MacDorman, and Thoma 2015). Ahern et al. (2011) reported that rural areas of Appalachia exhibited a higher incidence of birth defects than the general population with an alarming rise reported in mountaintop coal mining areas. Particularly notable are Ahern et al. (2011) findings from the examination of the birth records of 1.8 million infants for 22 types of congenital anomalies. Comparisons were made between infants in mountaintop removal areas versus those in non-mountaintop removal areas throughout West Virginia, Virginia, and Kentucky. From 1996–1999 birth defects were 13% and from 2000–2003 they were 42% higher in mountaintop removal sites compared to non-mountaintop removal areas (Ahern et al. 2011). While Ahern et al. (2011) postulated that an observed higher incidence of birth defects in rural areas of Appalachia may be related to the effects of mountaintop coal mining, a conflicting study published by Lamm et al. (2015) concluded that there was no increased risk of birth defects from mountain top removal mining counties after adjust for, or stratification by, hospital of birth. The results from Lamm et al. (2015) noted that the previously reported correlation between birth defect rates and mountain top coal mining was a consequence of data heterogeneity. Another study determined the reportedly higher rates of congenital anomalies from the birth certificates in West Virginia were due to the influence of misclassification bias (Li, Robbins, and Lamm 2013). Beyond our demonstration of different levels of fetal exposure to Cu, Mg, and Mo in rural and urban groups, further research is needed to evaluate the impact of this finding with regard to the effects of specific elements on congenital anomalies, pregnancy complications, fetal short-term and long-term neurological development.