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Introduction
Published in Madeline Taylor, Tina Hunter, Agricultural Land Use and Natural Gas Extraction Conflicts, 2018
The reason for the focus on hydraulic fracturing in shale gas production is two-fold. Firstly, is the fear (real or imagined) of contamination of both surface and groundwater resources as a result of hydraulic fracturing. Secondly, is the use and disposal of water that is used within the hydraulic fracturing process. Both of these concerns point to a focus to varying extents within this book, due to the nexus between water and agriculture. Water is essential for the production of agricultural products; although farmers often do not need access to water of high drinking standard, it must be potable water that does not cause harm to the environment. Furthermore, these water resources must be permanent not ephemeral. Hydraulic fracturing requires up to 1.5–16 million gallons of water per hydraulic fracture (each well can require anywhere between 5–15 fractures). Of this water use, approximately 50 per cent will be returned to the surface contaminated with the chemicals that are added during the hydraulic fracturing processes as well as naturally occurring contaminants that return to the surface. This then raises another challenge, that of the disposal of contaminated water often on agricultural land. It is this interaction between hydraulic fracturing, unconventional gas production, agricultural activities and the broader context that is further explored here.
Water and Energy Nexus
Published in Sheila Devasahayam, Kim Dowling, Manoj K. Mahapatra, Sustainability in the Mineral and Energy Sectors, 2016
The hydraulic fracturing (fracking) process, shown in Figure 20.6, uses significant volumes of water in deep horizontal wells to overpressure shale formations such that they fracture (GWPC, 2009). This liberates the trapped shale oil or shale gas such that it can be more easily extracted. The length of horizontal wells are increasing as the technology matures, which is increasing the amount of water needed per hydraulic fracture process. The July 2015 data from the United States suggest that the water volumes used in hydraulic fracturing has grown from 8 million L per full well fracture to as much as 40 million L per full well fracture. Figure 20.7 shows the locations in the United States with the highest average water use for hydraulic fracturing. In Figure 20.7, a cubic meter is 1000 L (Gallegos and Varela, 2015).
Influence of Colloids on Mineralization in Unconventional Oil and Gas Reservoirs and Wellbores
Published in Olayinka I. Ogunsola, Isaac K. Gamwo, Solid–Liquid Separation Technologies, 2022
J. Alexandra Hakala, Wei Xiong, Justin Mackey, Meghan Brandi, James Gardiner, Nicholas Siefert, Christina Lopano, Barbara Kutchko, B.J. Carney
Development of unconventional tight hydrocarbon reservoirs is a major driver for increases in United States-based oil and gas production over the past decade (EIA 2020). Significant volumes of water are injected during hydraulic fracturing of these reservoirs and can range from less than 10,000 to ~150,000 m3 per well depending on lateral length (Gallegos et al. 2015, Kondash, Lauer, and Vengosh 2018). The volume of water produced during flowback and production, which can range from less than 10,000 to ~85,000 m3 per well (Kondash, Lauer, and Vengosh 2018), ultimately requires management and treatment either for disposal or beneficial use, especially in regions where more water is produced than used for completion activities.
A revisit to the relationship between geothermal energy growth and underground water quality in EU economies
Published in Environmental Technology, 2022
Mohd Alsaleh, Tinggui Chen, Abdul Samad Abdul-Rahim
From another point of view, putting in place geothermal power structures requires having to dig deep down the earth for hot steam enclosed in rock formations to be released, of course, this drilling process could trigger shakes underground, which are prone to earthquakes on the earth's surface level. In the course of enhancing the performance of geothermal plants, fluids are injected which could trigger problems at the subsurface level leading to earthquakes. An et al. [27] investigated what impact the injection of fluid has on inducing earthquakes on deep breaks in the rock formation, pointing out that geothermal power development may promote unstable frictional behaviour and indicate increased potential for the nucleation of slip instability relative to that of the host granodiorite gouge. Likewise, Ree et al. [28] and Im et al. [18] used the social representation theory of a mixed-method approach (quantitative and qualitative), the study examined the people of Pohang, Korea, perception of geothermal power plants in the aftermath of the 2017 Pohang earthquake, findings from the study show that the people of Pohang have a negative perception towards geothermal irrespective of safety precautions, curbing climate change, and economic factors. Similarly, Niu et al. [29] searched the hazardous injection area of the induced earthquakes during hydraulic fracturing in China, indicating that hydraulic fracturing may have hidden faults in the reservoir/caprock sequences and injecting fluid into underground formations during hydraulic fracturing often induces fault slip and leads to earthquakes.
Removal of organics from shale gas fracturing flowback fluid using expanded granular sludge bed and moving bed biofilm reactor
Published in Environmental Technology, 2021
Yu Sun, Liang Huang, Changmiao Lai, Huiqiang Li, Ping Yang
Hydraulic fracturing technology and horizontal drilling technology are the main approaches for efficient shale gas production. Under extreme conditions of high pressure and high temperature, fracturing fluid is injected to create fissures and increase the permeability in the shale layer [1]. To meet the complex requirements of the hydraulic fracturing process, fracturing fluid consists commonly of water, gelling agents, surfactants, friction reducers, corrosion inhibitors, scale inhibitors, biocides, crosslinkers and breakers [2–4]. After releasing the pressure, the mixture of the injected fracturing fluids and the connate water of shale formation returns to the surface, resulting in the fluid called flowback and produced water (FPW) [5]. Although the composition of FPW is highly regional variably, the characteristics of FPW are the same, including high concentrations of salinity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved organic matter (DOM), heavy metals and naturally occurring radioactive materials [6–8]. To reduce the potential contamination of ground and surface water supplies, FPW must be treated before being disposed or reused.
Determining conventional and unconventional oil and gas well brines in natural samples I: Anion analysis with ion chromatography
Published in Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 2020
Tetiana Cantlay, J. Lucas Eastham, Jennifer Rutter, Daniel J. Bain, Bruce C. Dickson, Partha Basu, John F. Stolz
The extraction of tight gas and oil from shale reserves such as the Marcellus, Haynesville, Barnett and Bakken has become feasible as a result of coupling the processes of horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing. The result has been a dramatic increase in the United States of unconventional natural gas production from 1.3 tcf in 2007 to 17 tcf in 2016.[1] The Marcellus is one of the largest of the many Devonian age black shales found in the Appalachian Basin.[2,3] Although estimates vary on the actual amount of gas recoverable from the Marcellus Shale,[4–7] the number of nontraditional gas wells in Pennsylvania has grown from none in 2003 to 9,584 by the end of 2015.[8] Hydraulic fracturing requires large volumes of fluids, 3–5 million gallons per well on average.[9,10] The process generates liquids of varying chemical composition and total dissolved solids (TDS) such as flowback water generated during the initial stage of well production, produced water in the subsequent stages and other production fluids.[11,12] Although, the industry has significantly expanded recycling waste water, the eventual disposal of the liquid waste has included simple dilution at waste water treatments plants (POTWs), dedicated brine treatment facilities and deep well injection.[13,14]