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Light Sources
Published in Toru Yoshizawa, Handbook of Optical Metrology, 2015
The overall efficiency of a laser system is the ratio of the optical output power of the laser to the total power required to pump the laser. Typical efficiencies range from fractions of percent to about 25%, as for the most commonly used lasers they are below 2%. Carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers have efficiencies between 5% and 15%, dye lasers ~1% and 20%, whereas the most efficient are the semiconductor lasers ~1% and 50%. The losses are mainly thermal losses, and therefore, for high-power lasers the cooling is essential. Argon ion gas laser is one of the most commonly used lasers in realtime holography. The overall efficiency of a 10 W argon laser is 0.05%, and the total power used is 2 × 104 W. Of this power, 99.95% is wasted as heat energy that if not removed, will damage the components of the system. Argon and krypton lasers use water cooling or forced air depending on the length of the tube and output power.
Evolution of microstructure and combustion reactivity of lignite during high-temperature drying process
Published in Drying Technology, 2018
Chen Mu, Shouyu Zhang, You Li, Hao Li, Shunyan Wu, Xiaohe Huang
The variations of the functional groups contained in the lignite samples before and after the drying treatment were determined by a FT-IR Spectrometer (Nicolet 6700, America). Approximately 1 mg samples were mixed with 150 mg dried KBr powder. The spectra were recorded in the region from 4,000 to 400 cm−1. The total number of scans were 32 with a spectral resolution of 4 cm−1. The carbon structure of the lignite samples was measured by a Raman spectrometer (Renishaw InVia plus, UK) with the ion laser beam (514 nm exciting lines of argon laser). The first-order bands in the range 800–2,000 cm−1 were recorded by the Raman spectra at 2 cm−1 resolution. Because of the heterogeneity of coal particles, the three tests were performed at different positions of the sample surface and the average of the three data was chosen. The physical properties of pore structure obtained from N2 adsorption measurements were performed with an adsorption apparatus (NOVAtouch, American Quantachrome) and the surface area was calculated using the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) equation, whereas the volume was determined by the Barret–Joyner–Halenda model.
On the efficacy of dielectric spectroscopy in the identification of onset of the various stages in lactic acid coagulation of milk
Published in Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy, 2020
Aswini Harindran, V. Madhurima
Imaging was done using Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope (Leica, TCS SP8 spectral laser scanning microscope with GaAsP detector) with 0.1 μm resolution and 20 X objective. It is an upright microscope with three laser sources, Argon laser (458 nm, 488 nm and 514 nm), DPSS solid state laser (514 nm) and Helium-Neon laser (633 nm). As the samples lacked self-fluorescence, they were stained with Rhodamine B dye to observe the protein network. Excitation of Rhodamine B was done using 561 nm laser and the emitted light was collected between 570 nm and 590 nm. The dye (1 mg) was added to 10 ml of de-ionized water and 5 ml of this dye solution was used to stain the 50 ml sample.
Solubility product and thermodynamic functions of copper (II) oxalate
Published in Chemical Engineering Communications, 2021
Alexander V. Levanov, Oksana Ya. Isaikina, Valery V. Lunin
The precipitate obtained by the titration was characterized by Raman spectroscopy. The precipitate was separated from the mother liquor by centrifugation or filtration, and the resulting substance was dried for 30 min at 105 °C, or for a week at room temperature. Raman spectra were recorded by means of a Horiba Jobin Yvon HR 800 UV spectrometer with diffraction grating 300 l/mm. The sample was located under the microscope objective; the spectra were excited by radiation from an ion argon laser with a wavelength of 514.532 nm.