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Review of Layer 2 and Layer 3 Forwarding
Published in James Aweya, Designing Switch/Routers, 2023
This chapter discusses the basics of Layer 2 and Layer 3 forwarding, as well as the methods a switch/router uses to decide which mode of forwarding to use (Layer 2 or Layer 3) when it receives a packet. The discussion covers the forwarding of packets within and between IP subnets, control plane and data plane separation in routing devices, the basics of routing table structure and construction, and the packet forwarding processes in routing devices. The discussion includes the key actions involved in packet forwarding. The IP packet forwarding processes involve parsing the packet’s IP destination address, performing a lookup in the IP forwarding table, and sending the packet out the correct outbound interface. This discussion helps in understanding the Layer 2 and Layer 3 processing that takes place in switch/routers. The discussion also helps in understanding the differences between the Layer 2 and Layer 3 processing that takes place in switch/routers.
The UAV-Assisted Wireless Ad hoc Network
Published in Suhel Ahmad Khan, Rajeev Kumar, Omprakash Kaiwartya, Mohammad Faisal, Raees Ahmad Khan, Computational Intelligent Security in Wireless Communications, 2022
Mohd Asim Sayeed, Raj Shree, Mohd Waris Khan
Wireless ad hoc networks are made up of wireless nodes capable of calculating routes in a topology like a router. The route calculation by the node is done using a routing protocol. Routing protocols help a node in neighbor discovery, topology formations, and data packet transmission. The most common of the routing protocols are AODV [5], OLSR [6], DSDV [7], ZRP [8], DSR [9], etc. A routing protocol initializes the wireless node and transmits control packets (for example, an OLSR hello packet) for neighbor discovery. When a neighboring node responds to the initialization packet, the source recognizes the neighbor and adds an entry to its routing table. The routing table is used for topology formation and packet forwarding. Neighbor discovery and routing table calculations are perhaps the most important steps for a wireless node before any kind of data transmission can commence. The routing protocol can be proactive, that is, it can calculate all the routes from a node to every other node in the topology in advance, and it can be reactive in the sense that a route is calculated whenever data packets need to be sent. Some literature studies differentiate between the two in the sense that it is table-driven or not. However, every protocol needs to maintain the routing table for faster route lookup. A reactive protocol, however, updates its table on demand. A third kind of routing protocol exists for this reason. The hybrid protocols imitate the functioning of both proactive and reactive routing protocols.
ATM and IP Integration
Published in Naoaki Yamanaka, High-Performance Backbone Network Technology, 2020
SUMMARY Overview of Cell Switch Router (CSR) and the CSR prototype system are described. CSR can simultaneously support both connection oriented IP flows and connectionless IP flows. CSR contains cell switch fabric and IP packet switch fabric to achieve high throughput IP forwarding. IP packets are forwarded either through a cut-thru packet transmission, in which packet are forwarded without reassembling IP packet nor IP header processing, or through a conventional hop-by-hop IP packet forwarding. This paper describes and proposes the mechanism to forward the connectionless IP packet flows at the CSR. A CSR prototype system has been developed. The CSR prototype system uses PVC connections to transfer the IP packets. With the CSR prototype system, we can make sure that CSR system can achieve a high throughput, i.e., 2.4Gbps aggregated throughput. For end-to-end TCP/IP packet transmission, more than 90 Mbps can be achieved and realtime video transmission (30 Mbps video) can be achieved.
A Back propagation Neural Network Model for HWSNs Using IMIMO with a Secured Routing Mechanism
Published in IETE Journal of Research, 2022
It is the total number of routing or control packets (RTR) produced during the simulation by a routing protocol. Every packet forwarding at the network layer was known to be routing overhead. Routing Overhead is measured as the amount of time taken to transmit the data packets from the source node to the sink node through the neighboring nodes. It is computed mathematically using Equation (14). From the equation, DPs represents the number of data packets and T denotes the time for routing the data packet. The overhead is evaluated in milliseconds (ms). The routing overhead of the proposed IMIMO model is less than the other models, as shown in Figure 10. When the routing overhead is lesser, the model is considered to be more efficient, as shown in Table 5.
Traffic-aware autonomous scheduling for 6TiSCH networks
Published in International Journal of Computers and Applications, 2022
Nilam Pradhan, Bharat S. Chaudhari
The RPL [8] was developed by the IETF Roll WG to enable multi-hop routing in Low-Power and Lossy Networks (LLN). These networks are constrained in energy, resources, processing time, and higher packet loss than wired networks. RPL separates packet forwarding from routing optimization, such as reducing energy, reducing latency, or improving QoS. In the 6TiSCH stack, the RPL protocol builds the network topology based on the rank of the nodes. A rank specifies the metric distance of a node to its Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG) root. A network runs multiple RPL instances where each instance creates routes to the destination via the DODAG roots.
A new on the fly energy-efficient opportunistic routing in wireless multi-hop networks
Published in Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers, 2023
Samaneh Shabani, Neda Moghim, Ali Bohlooli
In this paper, a novel opportunistic routing algorithm (EEOPR) was proposed in multi-hop wireless networks. This algorithm does not predetermine the candidate forwarders. The selected candidates are not also obliged to transmit the packets after pre-allocated time durations. EEOPR is a flexible method in which the process of routing is performed locally. The candidate forwarders are selected during the routing and for each packet. In this algorithm, candidate forwarders’ selection and their packet forwarding schedule are performed according to the credit allocated to the packets. The credit is determined based on the remaining energy of the nodes, and also the region of the nodes. In EEOPR, the number of forwarder nodes is limited with the consideration of the nodes’ regions. Therefore, duplicate packet transmission will be mitigated. Furthermore, the network nodes’ residual energy is improved in EEOPR due to the consideration of the nodes’ remaining energy in the determination of the final candidate forwarder node. It is worth noting that a genetic algorithm is utilized to determine the final candidate node for packet forwarding. The results of the simulation illustrated that EEOPR has higher throughput, delivery ratio, and network lifetime compared to ROMER, CORP-M, and EOpR. On the other hand, computational overhead and the number of duplicate packets decrease, and good load balancing is also achieved in the network. Although the proposed method leads to a higher average e2e delay compared to ROMER, its performance is still better than CORP-M. In future research work, the effect of node mobility on EEOPR’s performance can be evaluated, and it would be desirable to design a mobility-aware EEOPR. Privacy protection in EEOPR is another research direction because nodes may not intend to share some information such as their location and so on.