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Historical Note on Earthquakes
Published in Santiago Pujol, Ayhan Irfanoglu, Aishwarya Puranam, Drift-Driven Design of Buildings, 2022
Santiago Pujol, Ayhan Irfanoglu, Aishwarya Puranam
The upper layer is stiff. It is presumed that if the entire mantle had been as stiff, the outer shell of the earth would stay put. This stiff layer of the mantle and the overlying crust are referred to as the lithosphere. The lithosphere is approximately 80-km thick.
Classification of Soil Water
Published in A. Zaman, Md. Hedayetullah, Sustainable Water Resource Development and Management, 2022
A water resource is entirely related with development of earth surface which corresponding to the three states of matter (solid, liquid, and gas) constitutes the earth. The solid zone is lithosphere; land which is covered by water forming seas and oceans is the hydrosphere. The gaseous envelope over the earth’s surface is the atmosphere. The lithosphere consists of continents, oceans basins, plains, plateau and mountains, valleys, sand dunes and also it includes the interior of earth which consists of rocks and minerals. It is covered by gaseous and watery envelops. It accounts to 93.06% of the earth. The earth ball consists of three concentric rings: crust, mantle, and core. The crust is 5–56 km thick and consists of rocks with density of 2.6–3.0. It varies from 5 to 11 km in the oceans and 35–56 km in the continents. The soil scientists are interested in this skin.
Petroleum Pre-Period
Published in Muhammad Abdul Quddus, Petroleum Science and Technology, 2021
The uppermost mantle and overlying crust are solid, rigid and rocky layers. Together they are known as the ‘lithosphere’. The thickness of the heterogeneous lithosphere is about 200 km. The upper mantle just below the lithosphere forms rigid to plastic material.
Autochthonous strains of Trichoderma isolated from tannery solid waste improve phytoextraction potential of heavy metals by sunflower
Published in International Journal of Phytoremediation, 2023
Sobia Mushtaq, Firdaus e Bareen, Asima Tayyeb, Aisha Nazir
The environmental contamination with heavy metals has increased abruptly over the past century due to unwarranted population growth and the industrial revolution, causing major human health and many other environmental problems worldwide (Abdelhafez and Li 2014). Industrial waste dumps, untreated wastewater discharge and sludges, mining activities, and intense use of agrochemicals are the chief sources of soil and water contaminants. As the soils are major direct or indirect recipients of all the contaminants, the protection of the lithospheric compartment from heavy metals is a crucial aspect of preserving the balance of ecosystems. The negative impacts associated with heavy metals pollution majorly include the decline in agricultural yield, alteration of diversity and activity of soil microbial community, and a major health hazard for humans through the food chain (Adimalla et al. 2020). Therefore, decontamination and restoring soil fertility have become challenging at the present time. Physicochemical methods are very expensive, limiting their utilization at a large scale for the amelioration of polluted lands in developing countries. They produce a great amount of waste for disposal and reduce soil fertility (Sivarajasekar et al. 2018).
A Multi-Analytical Approach to the Characterisation of the Biocalcarenite from “Cádiz Roman Theatre” (Andalusia - SW Spain)
Published in International Journal of Architectural Heritage, 2023
Giada M.C. Gemelli, José Luis Ramírez-Amador, Almoraima M.L. Gil Montero, Maria J. Mosquera, Salvador Domínguez-Bella
Rocks alteration can be defined as a transformation of the mineral matter due to the disequilibrium between the medium, in which the rocks are originated, and the surface of the lithosphere (Amoroso 2002). The set of physical-chemical reactions, that occur between the lithosphere on the one hand and the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere on the other, constitute the meteoric alteration of the rocks. “Alteration” is defined when the external agent causes aesthetic changes without affecting the integrity of the material (eg. chromatic alteration, stains and patina). On the contrary, “degradation” is defined when the external agent determines a worsening of the chemical and physical-mechanical conditions of the material (eg erosion, exfoliation, deformation, biological colonization) (UNI Ente nazionale italiano di unificazione/Italian Organization for Standardization, UNI 2006). Deterioration processes can be divided into three groups: chemical, physical and biological that, generally, can take place simultaneously. External deterioration processes, however, are not the only ones responsible for degradation. They are associated with internal factors of the material such as the composition, texture and structure of the rock and other factors that can contribute to the acceleration of deterioration) (Amoroso 2002). Among them: (1) The inappropriate choice of stone; (2) extraction, transport and storage errors; (3) incorrect choice of stone with respect to use or geographic and urban location, as well as its positioning during installation; (4) intervention errors during restore operations.
Propagation of Love-type wave in functionally graded pre-stressed magneto-visco-elastic fiber-reinforced composite structure
Published in Waves in Random and Complex Media, 2021
Pooja Singh, Amares Chattopadhyay, Abhishek Kumar Singh
Earthquake generally occurs when rock subterranean suddenly breaks and produces an enormous amount of energy in the Earth’s lithosphere leading to the generation of seismic waves. Lithosphere is a transition zone comprises of crust and upper part of the mantle where most of the geological phenomena such as earthquake, movement of tectonic plates and volcanic eruption take place, mechanical properties of which play a vital role for several geological reasons. When there is a sudden change in the physical properties of rock, seismic wave gets reflected and refracted through the boundaries and traces out different layers of the Earth’s interior. The study of Love wave is used for understanding the mechanism of earthquakes which produces horizontal motion to the ground and confined to the surface of the crust. Also, their propagation depends on the mechanism and magnitude of the earthquake, the epicenter distance and the structure of the Earth’s crust along the wave path. Jeffreys and Bullen [1] were analyzed the studies of Earth structure which is based on seismological observations.