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Phosphorous-Based FRs
Published in Asim Kumar Roy Choudhury, Flame Retardants for Textile Materials, 2020
Tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) (Structure 6.9) is a chemical compound used as a flame retardant, plasticizer, and viscosity regulator in various types of polymers including polyurethanes, polyester resins, and polyacrylates. It is widely used in rigid polyurethane and polyisocyanurate foams, most classes of thermosets, cast acrylics, and in wood-resin composites. Tri(1-chloroethyl) phosphate, owing to the presence of a branched alkyl group, has lower reactivity to water and bases than the 2-chloroethyl homologue.
Review on age-specific exposure to organophosphate esters: Multiple exposure pathways and microenvironments
Published in Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2023
Jia-Yong Lao, Yuefei Ruan, Kenneth M. Y. Leung, Eddy Y. Zeng, Paul K. S. Lam
TCIPP and TDCIPP are widely used in RPU, flexible PU (FPU) foam, and epoxy and phenolic resins. Rigid PU foam is mostly employed in construction, piping, and packaging for thermal insulation, whereas FPU is primarily used as a cushioning material in furniture, bedding, carpet underlay, automobiles, and packaging (Hill, 2003). TCIPP and TDCIPP showed high detection frequencies in furniture foam, accounting for 0.5–2.2% and 1–5% of the foam weights, respectively (Stapleton et al., 2009). In addition to flame retardation, TCIPP possesses antistatic and softening properties as well as resistance to low temperature and moisture, and therefore is widely applied in laminate roofing and spray formulations. For example, PVC wallpapers have been found to contain TCIPP (Ni et al., 2007). Owing to its resistance to flame, low temperature, and ultraviolet light, TCEP is primarily employed in cellulose-nitrate- and cellulose-acetate-based materials, fireproof paint, and plastics, and can also be used in PU, polyester, and acrylic resin. As TCEP is suspected to be carcinogenic and toxic to mammalian reproduction, it is subject to risk evaluation proposed by the European Chemical Agency (ECHA) and United States Environmental Protection Agency through the Toxic Substances Control Act (ECHA, 2020; USEPA, 2019). This in turn enforces certain restrictions on the production and application of TCEP, especially in childcare supplies, residential upholstered furniture, and textile.
A critical review of human internal exposure and the health risks of organophosphate ester flame retardants and their metabolites
Published in Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2022
Yan Yang, Peng Chen, Shengtao Ma, Shaoyou Lu, Yingxin Yu, Taicheng An
The dominant DAP analogues in urine samples from China were BCEP, BDCIPP, and DPHP, whereas those in samples from the USA, Japan, Australia, and Europe were BDCIPP, BCIPP, and DPHP (Fig. 4). BCEP accounted for 57.6% of all detected DAPs in China. These high levels of BCEP can be attributed to the unrestricted use of this compound in China (Zhang et al., 2018b). To the authors’ best knowledge, TCEP is being gradually phased out in Europe. The high urinary concentrations of BDCIPP, BCIPP, and BPHP observed in western countries may indicate that their parent compounds (TDCIPP, TCIPP, and TPHP) are increasingly being used as substitutes for TCEP in these countries. In general, levels of Cl-DAPs were higher than those of other DAPs. However, isopropyl-phenyl phenyl phosphate (ip-PPP) was identified as the most abundant mOPE in urine, albeit on the basis of limited data (Doherty et al., 2019; Hoffman et al., 2018b). A few studies have also investigated the occurrence of mOPEs in blood (Ya et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2019). One study found that DEHP was the dominant mOPE, accounting for 82.8% of all DAPs (Ya et al., 2019), but DPHP was dominant in another case, accounting for 71.4% of mOPEs (including DAPs and OH-OPEs) (Zhao et al., 2019). Unfortunately, reported studies on mOPEs in blood have focused only on a limited number of mOPE analogues.