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Water and the Hydrosphere
Published in Dexter Perkins, Kevin R. Henke, Adam C. Simon, Lance D. Yarbrough, Earth Materials, 2019
Dexter Perkins, Kevin R. Henke, Adam C. Simon, Lance D. Yarbrough
Figure 12.39 shows seawater evaporation ponds that produce commercial sea salt. Both saline water and brackish water can be used as a source of salt by processes generally called desalination. Historically, salt has been produced by evaporating salty water and collecting the material that is precipitated. Although salt is an important commodity, used for food processing and preservation, a number of industrial processes, and to melt snow on roads, the processing of saline waters and brines to produce drinkable water is also important in regions where fresh water is in short supply. Desalination to provide water is especially important in the Middle East. In Kuwait, almost all drinking water come from desalination; the largest desalination plant in the world is in Saudi Arabia. In the United States, Florida has 150 desalination plants, California and Texas have half to a third as many, and several other states have a smaller number.
A study on the lubrication performance of end faces with diamond macro-pores
Published in Fei Lei, Qiang Xu, Guangde Zhang, Machinery, Materials Science and Engineering Applications, 2017
X.P. Cheng, L.P. Kang, Y.L. Zhang, B.L. Yu, X.K. Meng, X.D. Peng
Artificial seawater (the viscosity coefficient μ is 10.443 mPa·s when its temperature is 25°C) is used as a lubricant in this test. And the artificial seawater is a mixture of the sea salt and pure water in a certain proportion, which is similar to the natural seawater. The seawater elements formula is as follows: 72.3~77.5% sodium chloride, 7.5~12% magnesium sulfate, 11.6~13.5% magnesium chloride, 1.65~1.94% calcium chloride, 1.35~1.64% potassium chloride, and 0.001~0.002% sodium thiosulfate. The sum of the components is 100%.
Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Published in Poul Beckmann, Robert Bowles, Structural Aspects of Building Conservation, 2012
Sea salt consists mainly of sodium chloride. In locations near beaches, salt spray from breaking waves may be carried by the wind (sometimes several kilometres inland) and deposited on the surface of the concrete, from where the chlorides find their way into the body of the concrete. In places with limited sources of freshwater, such as Gibraltar and Hong Kong, sea water is used for street cleaning which may cause salt spray and/or it is used for flushing lavatories and may then find its way to the concrete through overflowing cisterns or leaking pipes. The consequences of the latter can be particularly disruptive to the occupants of the building as remedial works have to be carried out inside (as opposed to spray damage which, being external, can be repaired from the outside).
PM2.5 in Carlsbad Caverns National Park: Composition, sources, and visibility impacts
Published in Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 2022
Lillian E. Naimie, Amy P. Sullivan, K.B. Benedict, Anthony J. Prenni, B.C. Sive, Bret A. Schichtel, Emily V. Fischer, Ilana Pollack, Jeffrey Collett
Oil and gas development and production can also impact levels of sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium particulate species. Direct emission of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and NOx leads to the formation of sulfuric and nitric acids, respectively. Both can react with ammonia (NH3) to form hygroscopic particles with important implications for total PM and light scattering. Ammonium nitrate formation, in particular, has been tied to O/G operations in the western U.S. (Elvidge et al. 2009; Evanoski-Cole et al. 2017; Li et al. 2012; Prenni et al. 2016). The formation of ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2SO4) and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) is dependent on ammonia availability and thermodynamic conditions. If ammonia is very limited, sulfuric acid will exist in the particle phase. As ammonia availability increases, NH4HSO4 (ammonium bisulfate), (NH4)3H(SO4)2 (letovicite), and (NH4)2SO4 (ammonium sulfate) can form. Once the sulfate has been neutralized, ammonium nitrate may form (Pandis and Seinfeld 2016); this is favored at lower temperatures and higher relative humidities (Krueger et al. 2003) and when gaseous nitric acid (HNO3) and ammonia (NH3) are abundant. Nitric acid can also react with sodium chloride from sea salt particles and calcium carbonate in the soil.
Organochlorine pesticides in the drinking water of Merida and its Metropolitan Zone, a Karst Region
Published in Urban Water Journal, 2022
Angel Gabriel Polanco Rodríguez, Jesús Alfredo Araujo León, Rafael López Cetz, Dave Long, Fernando José Álvarez Cervera, Umesh Barache, Daniel H. Rosas Sánchez
In addition, from the point of view of the physicochemical characterization of water in Yucatan, it is important to consider some parameters that may have an impact on public health. Drinking water hardness is one of them, since it is not safe to drink and should only be used for other domestic purposes. The Na/Cl concentration ratios can be used to infer the relative importance of halite, that includes seawater (e.g. intrusion) and sea salt aerosols (e.g. rain). A few samples have elevated K+ and SO4 concentrations that might reflect the influence of fertilizers and waste (Long et al. 2018). Although the cation chemistry of the water samples are shifted towards a seawater endmember, they do not show a well-defined mixing trend as in the anion triangle. This lack of a well-defined trajectory indicates that there are other processes or sources such as water-rock reactions and possible contamination influencing water chemistry.
Algal treatment of wastewater generated during oil and gas production using hydraulic fracturing technology
Published in Environmental Technology, 2019
Giovanni Antonio Lutzu, Nurhan Turgut Dunford
Microalgae strains investigated in this study were obtained from the culture collection of Algae at the University of Texas at Austin [17] and the National Center for Marine Algae and Microbiota, Boothbay, Maine [18]. The strain identification numbers media used to prepare inoculum as well as the location where the strains were isolated are reported in Table 1. The detailed chemical composition of the culture media used to maintain algae can be found on the UTEX and NCMA official websites. Briefly, Erdschreiber’s medium contains artificial seawater which was purchased from UTEX and natural sea salt. P-IV solution used for preparing Erdschreiber’s medium consisted of Fe, Mn, Zn, Co and Fe (purchased from UTEX). The trace metal solution used in medium f/2 preparation contained Zn, Mn, Co, Cu, Mo and Fe and was purchased from UTEX. All chemicals used in this study were reagent grade unless otherwise stated. Each algal strain was maintained in 50mL glass tubes. All the strains were grown in the media that were recommended by UTEX and NCMA. Culture maintenance conditions were as follows: room temperature, a photosynthetic photon flux (PPF) of 40 µmol m2 s–1 provided by two 32 W white fluorescent tubes (F32T8/SP65/ECO, General Electric Company, Fairfield, CT), and a light/dark photoperiod of 12h. The culture tubes were gently covered with a plastic cap allowing for air diffusion.