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Periodic Arch
Published in Mihai V. Putz, New Frontiers in Nanochemistry, 2020
Then on the upper right of the PA come the ‘ductile metals’: from iron (26Fe) through copper (29Cu), and from molybdenum (42Mo) through silver (47Ag), and from hafnium (72Hf) through gold (79Au), and from rutherfordium (104Rf) through the oddly named 111uuu. The combination of the actinide and lanthanide series and the ductile metals make up about half of the PA.
Basic Constants, Units, and Conversion Factors
Published in W. M. Haynes, David R. Lide, Thomas J. Bruno, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 2016
W. M. Haynes, David R. Lide, Thomas J. Bruno
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium
Manhattan Project: The Story of the Century, by Bruce Cameron Reed. Springer Nature Switzerland AG, 2020,
Published in Technometrics, 2022
Chapter 2 “From Atoms to Nuclei: An Inward Journey” traces the history of atomic and nuclear physics development from scientific research to new sources of energy and military applications. The chapter starts from German physicist W.C. Röntgen who in 1895 accidentally discovered X-rays—the mysterious rays passing through his hand and revealing a ghostly image of bones on a phosphorescent screen. French mineralogist A.H. Becquerel observed that samples of uranium ores left an image on photographic plates, that led him to the discovery of radioactivity in 1896. This radiation was produced by the so-called alpha and beta particles, known now as Helium-4 nuclei and electrons, emitted by nuclei of uranium or other heavy elements in the natural decay to more stable elements. Electrons were discovered in 1897 by English physicist J.J. Thomson who could determine the mass and electric charge. In 1900 French chemist P. Villard found gamma radiation which is the photon emission from nuclei and is of much higher energy than X-rays, and of million times greater energy than photons of visible light. Marie and Pierre Curie found two new elements called polonium and radium, coined a new term of radioactivity, and in 1903 they and Becquerel were awarded Nobel Prize. Nuclear research had been continued by E. Rutherford with his collaborators and students: F. Soddy on isotopes and a half-life decay from one radioactive element to another one; F. Aston on mass spectrometry; also, Geiger, Marsden, Chadwick—to mention just a few. The most famous of Rutherford’s discoveries was made in 1909-1911 on scattering and collision experiments which show that atoms have positively charged nuclei having the majority of the mass in atoms, with the much less massive electrons orbiting at far distances. If to scale them to a football field, a nucleus would be the size of a grain of rice. The term proton was coined by Rutherford in 1920, and he hypothesized about another, neutral, particle in nuclei, later called neutron. The laws of the total energy and electric charge conservation were established for nuclear reactions, but the mass can either be created or lost, in relation to transformation between mass and energy due to E mc2. If mass is lost (sum of the output masses is less than the sum of the input masses), it appears as kinetic energy of the output products; if mass is gained, then energy is drawn to create mass from the kinetic energy of the bombarding input nucleus. The mass gain or loss is measured in units of energy equivalent in mega electron-volt, or MeV. In 1919 Rutherford realized that the elements bombarded with some particles can be artificially transmuted into other ones, and the element 104 is named Rutherfordium in his honor.