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Managing Risk from Perfluorinated Compounds in Drinking Water
Published in David M. Kempisty, Yun Xing, LeeAnn Racz, Perfluoroalkyl Substances in the Environment, 2018
Selected perfluorinated compounds (PFOS and PFOA) were included in the third CCL in 2009, setting the stage for additional data collection and potentially regulatory action (USEPA 2016b). In 2012, the USEPA promulgated the Third Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR3). The UCMR3 included monitoring for PFOS, PFOA, and four other perfluorinated compounds: PFNA, PFHxS, PFHpA, and perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS).
Comparison of zebrafish in vitro and in vivo developmental toxicity assessments of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs)
Published in Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 2021
Ola Wasel, Kathryn M. Thompson, Yu Gao, Amy E. Godfrey, Jiejun Gao, Cecon T. Mahapatra, Linda S. Lee, Maria S. Sepúlveda, Jennifer L. Freeman
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) are the most well-known PFAAs that were previously produced in large amounts, are extremely stable, resistant to biological degradation, and a terminal product in the microbial degradation of precursor PFAS (Lau et al. 2007). PFOA and PFOS were extensively studied in cell, animal, and human epidemiological studies demonstrating hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, thyroid disruption, cardiovascular injury, renal toxicity, reproductive toxicity, and carcinogenicity (Zeng et al. 2019). Starting in the 2000s, the longer chain PFAAs were phased out and replaced by shorter chain PFAAs, such as perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) and perfluorobutyric acid (PFBA) for PFOA and perfluorobutane sulfonic acid (PFBS) for PFOS (US EPA 2017). As part of the PFOA Stewardship Program, there was an initiative to replace PFOA use by 2015 with these shorter derivatives, which are predicted to be less toxic. However, the amount of literature covering the toxicity of these shorter perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), such as PFHxA and PFBA, is still limited.