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Flexible and Stretchable Liquid Metal Electronics
Published in Katsuyuki Sakuma, Krzysztof Iniewski, Flexible, Wearable, and Stretchable Electronics, 2020
Dishit P. Parekh, Ishan D. Joshipura, Yiliang Lin, Christopher B. Cooper, Vivek T. Bharambe, Michael D. Dickey
Gallium-based liquid metals currently have the best combination of conductivity and stretchability of any conventional conductor and, hence, is well suited for flexible and stretchable electronic applications. Unlike mercury, gallium-based liquid metal alloys have shown low toxicity in addition to forming surface oxide skin which allows them to be patterned into useful electronic components such as ultrastretchable wires, antennas, interconnects, self-healing conductors, soft sensors (to detect strain, touch, curvature, and bending), 100% soft composites, and reconfigurable electronics. In addition, liquid metals are also used as active components in soft memory devices (memristors), soft electrodes, diodes, capacitors, bio-electrodes, energy capture/storage devices, and microfluidics.
Nuclear Energy
Published in Ivan G. Draganić, Zorica D. Draganić, Jean-Pierre Adloff, Radiation and Radioactivity on Earth and Beyond, 2020
Ivan G. Draganić, Zorica D. Draganić, Jean-Pierre Adloff
However, the probability of neutron interaction with a heavy nucleus decreases significantly when the neutron energy increases and the uranium fuel employed must be highly enriched with 239Pu (or 235U, which is more expensive). High concentrations of fissile material cause a large number of fission events in a small volume, and the problem of heat removal becomes delicate. A technical complication lies in the fact that core dimensions in fast nuclear reactors are much smaller than those in corresponding thermal neutron units with the same power rating. The coolant must therefore have a very high heat capacity and thermal conductivity, and these properties can only be provided by liquid metals.
Historical Development of Nuclear Power
Published in Kenneth D. Kok, Nuclear Engineering Handbook, 2016
Liquid metal has been used to cool thermal and fast reactors. Sodium-cooled graphite reactors are examples of thermal reactors. The sodium-cooled reactor experiment was built by Atomics International. Even though it was a small reactor (20 MWt), a steam generator turbine system was added to this reactor and it generated electricity for Southern California Edison Company beginning in July 1957. The Hallam Nuclear Power Facility (HNPF) was subsequently constructed for the consumers of Public Power District near Lincoln, Nebraska. The plant was a 76-MWe and 254-MWt graphite-moderated sodium-cooled reactor system. The plant operated from 1963 to 1964.
A Comprehensive Comparison in the Heat Transfer Performance of Pure Water-Based and Liquid Gallium-Based Hybrid Nanofluid Flows through a Minichannel, Using Two-Phase Eulerian–Eulerian Model
Published in Heat Transfer Engineering, 2023
Abhijith Mullakkal Sasidharan, Kondapalli Venkatasubbaiah
Endeavors to achieve heat transfer enhancement have become so common due to two main reasons: (a) depletion of conventional energy sources at startling rates necessitating efficient management of heat transfer processes and: (b) demand for high heat transfer rates associated with specific applications such as cooling of compact electronic devices. One of the numerous attempts to accomplish heat transfer enhancement is the use of nanofluids in place of conventional single-phase heat transfer fluids. Nanofluids are found to have superior thermal properties compared to the corresponding conventional fluids [1]. In contrast, hybrid nanofluids are nanofluids with two or more suspended nanoparticles to overcome the drawbacks of nanofluids with a single nanoparticle. Different methods of preparation of hybrid nanofluids are reported in the literature [2–5]. Minea [2] prepared hybrid nanofluids by different means: (a) by mixing two different nanofluids, (b) by mixing two different nanoparticles in the same base fluid, or (c) by preparing nanocomposite structures out of two different materials and then suspending them into the base fluid. Liquid metals, on the other hand, are low Prandtl number fluids with low melting temperatures, which have very high thermal conductivity values compared to conventional heat transfer fluids, like water.
Effect of isoflux thermal boundary condition on mixed convective heat transfer from a sphere for liquid metals
Published in International Journal of Ambient Energy, 2022
Dipjyoti Nath, B. Hema Sundar Raju
The heat transfer characteristics of the combined forced and free convection from an isothermal / isoflux sphere for liquid metals are of practical importance because of its applications in engineering and industries. The liquid metals flowing past orderly arrayed spheres are important since it is utilised in order-bed nuclear reactors, in which the fuel is created by spherical beads (Chia-Jung 1967). The liquid metals flowing a past sphere are used in Nuclear fuel-carrier systems and rocket fuel systems where the fuel particles involved in these systems can be approximated by spheres (Witte 1968). Liquid metals and their combinations are utilised as a coolant in computer chips, micro devices and heat exchangers on account of their high conductivity and low melting point (Miner and Ghoshal 2004; Li et al. 2005; Ma and Jing 2007; Luo and Jing 2013). Liquid metals are also used for direct thermal storage in Concentrated Solar Power systems because of their best thermo physical characteristics such as higher conductivity, higher boiling temperature and lower density resulting in more heat capacity (Lorenzin and Alberto 2016). In recent times, the researchers have been given a lot of attention for the investigation of heat transfer features past a bluff bodies. The mixed convection past a hot or cold bluff bodies has many applications in real life such as transport of fluid in pipelines, cooling towers, heat exchangers (Dhiman, Rishabh, and László 2018).
Analysis of forced convection from a horizontal flat plate for liquid metals
Published in International Journal of Ambient Energy, 2021
The forced convective heat transfer from a flat plate for liquid metals is of practical importance because of its applications in engineering and industries. Liquid metals and their alloys are used as coolant in computer chips, micro devices and heat exchangers because of their low melting point and high conductivity (Li et al. 2005; Luo and Liu 2013; Ma and Liu 2007; Miner and Ghoshal 2004). Liquid metals are also used for direct thermal storage in Concentrated Solar Power systems because of their best thermo physical characteristics such as higher conductivity, higher boiling temperature and lower density resulting more heat capacity (Lorenzin and Abanades 2016).