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Spray Drying for Production of Food Colors from Natural Sources
Published in M. Selvamuthukumaran, Handbook on Spray Drying Applications for Food Industries, 2019
Mehmet Koç, Feyza Elmas, Ulaş Baysan, Hilal Şahin Nadeem, Figen Kaymak Ertekin
Chlorophyll is the most widely found pigment in nature and it can be obtained from many different sources, including plants, algae, and bacteria (Wrolstad and Culver 2012). The basic structure of chlorophyll is a porphin ring, a symmetrical cyclic tetrapyrrole, found in nature with a phytol attachment and centralized magnesium ions. The last two components are related to chlorophyll’s functionality in food as colorant (Wrolstad and Culver 2012). Although several types of chlorophylls has been mentioned in the literature, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, which are abundant agents in green plant tissues and are available at the relative ratio of 3:1, are known to be the two most commonly used colorants in food applications. These pigments are highly unstable and lose their green color quite easily during handling, due to their functions in photosynthesis and also as a catalyst (Humphrey 2004).
Primary Production in Natural Water
Published in Robert P. Bukata, John H. Jerome, Kirill Ya. Kondratyev, Dimitry V. Pozdnyakov, of Inland and Coastal Waters, 2018
Robert P. Bukata, John H. Jerome, Kirill Ya. Kondratyev, Dimitry V. Pozdnyakov
Once determined, an organism′s action spectrum should enable the determination of both the identity and efficiency of pigments that are responsible for a particular photoreaction such as the rate of uptake of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. All phytoplankton contain the photosynthetically active chlorophyllous pigment chlorophyll a (Chla). The pigment chlorophyll b (Chlb) is very similar to chlorophyll a, the only difference being that its molecule contains an aldehyde (CHO) as opposed to a methyl (CH3) radical. Chlorophyll c (Chic) is a pigment present in some brown algae, diatoms, crysomonads, dinoflagellates, and cryptomonads, while chlorophyll d (Chid) can be found in a few species of red algae. There are also rare occurrences of the accessory pigment chlorophyll e (Chla). In addition to the main categories of chlorophyllous pigments, different forms of Chla have been routinely observed in living plants from both absorption spectra measurements and photophysiological analyses (see Halldal,154 French,114 Butler53). These different chlorophyll a forms manifest as a variety of absorption peaks clustered in the red (and in some instances the near-infrared) regions of the spectrum. Other photosynthetically active plant pigments include the carotenoid group, of which carotene (the red and orange isomeric hydrocarbon found in carrots) is the most well-known member and the phycobilin group of which phycoer-ythrin and phycocyanin are the principal members.
Removal of carbon and nitrogen in wastewater from a poultry processing plant in a photobioreactor cultivated with the microalga Chlorella vulgaris
Published in Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, 2022
Nayeli Gutiérrez-Casiano, Eduardo Hernández-Aguilar, Alejandro Alvarado-Lassman, Juan M. Méndez-Contreras
The content of photosynthetic pigments is important and is related to the carbon source that feeds them.[78] In the ANOVA (CI = 95%), it was found that the light factor (p = 0) and the interaction light * COD (p = 0.003) were significant in producing chlorophyll a given the photosynthetic process. The COD factor was not significant in the generation of chlorophyll a (p = 0.076), which is favorable since poultry wastewater can be used without dilution. Using 12,000 lux and 100% COD, chlorophyll a production of 0.409 ± 0.0851 µg mL−1 was obtained. These values were close to those obtained by Vo et al.,[78] which were less than 0.5 mg L−1 using 0.1% salinity with the microalga Chlorella sp. The analysis of variance (95% CI) indicated that the light factor (p = 0.228) and COD factor (p = 0.715) alone were not significant in the production of chlorophyll b. However, the COD light interaction had a significant effect by producing chlorophyll b (p = 0.032).
Manganese accumulation and plant physiology behavior of Camellia oleifera in response to different levels of potassium fertilization
Published in International Journal of Phytoremediation, 2020
Fangming Yu, Xueru Wang, Yawei Yao, Jiamin Lin, Yuanyuan Huang, Dongyu Xie, Kehui Liu, Yi Li
Green plants synthesize organic matter through photosynthesis to maintain their growth. Chlorophylls (chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b) are the main photosynthesis pigment in plants (Kalaji et al.2017). Studies have shown that K+ can promote the formation of chloroplasts. The number of chloroplast granules decreases when plants are deficient in potassium, thereby reducing the chlorophyll content (Hafsi et al.2016). Our study found that the addition of K fertilizer can significantly increase the content of photosynthetic pigments in plants (including Chl a, Chl b, and carotenoids). This result was consistent with the positive correlation between K addition levels and the content of photosynthetic pigments shown in Supplementary Table 3. At the same time, as the photosynthetic pigment content increased, the plant height also increased. The application of low levels (K60 and K200) of K fertilizer significantly increased the plant mass of C. oleifera. However, the plant mass was decreased under the K400 treatment. Our finding was consistent with the results of Wang et al. (2009), who reported the effect of potassium fertilizer on the lead bioavailability of the soil system in pepper. Meanwhile, the plant mass of C. oleifera in the mining area was significantly lower than that in the recovery area. However, it was not the case that more K fertilizer led to a higher photosynthetic pigment content. We found that when the amount of K added reached 400 mg kg−1, the Chl a and carotenoids concentrations in the leaves of C. oleifera slightly declined in both soils. This result was consistent with the findings of Du et al. (2012), who reported on the effects of K fertilizer on the chlorophyll content of soybeans in the reproductive stage. Meanwhile, high concentration of chlorophylls and carotenoids in leaves could results in more absorption of solar radiation, followed by higher photosynthetic potential and helped plant growth (Li et al.2018). Therefore, we conclude that adding low levels of K fertilizer (≤200 mg kg−1) were essential for the synthesis of photosynthetic pigments and the growth and development of plants. These effects can be explained by the significant correlations outlined in Supplementary Table 2 and Supplementary Figure 1 that indicate that the K addition level significantly affects the height and synthesis of chlorophyll in C. oleifera (p < 0.001).
Process intensification for the enhancement of growth and chlorophyll molecules of isolated Chlorella thermophila: A systematic experimental and optimization approach
Published in Preparative Biochemistry & Biotechnology, 2023
Sreya Sarkar, Sambit Sarkar, Tridib Kumar Bhowmick, Kalyan Gayen
Microalgae have remained an area of scientific research for eco-friendly renewable sources of biodiesel because of their high content of cellular lipids.[1,2] However, recent reports revealed that commercial biodiesel production as a single product from microalgae is economically infeasible.[3] Therefore, efforts are made to cultivate high cell density microalgal biomass which is used in the hydrothermal liquefaction process to produce bio-oil crudes using the bio-refinery concept to produce multiple products.[3] Besides bio-fuels, the attention of microalgae research has switched to producing high-value pigment molecules (e.g., chlorophyll), which have high demand in pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, and biotechnological industries.[3] Nowadays, chlorophylls are extracted on a commercial scale from alfalfa, corn, and spinach.[4] It may be noted that Chlorella sp. of microalgae contains substantially high chlorophyll (∼7% of dry biomass) than commercial sources of terrestrial plant sources such as alfalfa (∼0.2% of dry biomass).[5] Therefore, Chlorella sp. can be used as a potential source of chlorophyll (chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b) that can be used as natural coloring agents in various applications. For example, the use of chlorophyll (chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b) as a food coloring agent has been approved by the Food Safety and Standards (Food Products Standards and Food Additives) Regulations (2011) in various countries like the USA, India, and European countries.[6] Chlorophyll pigment is widely used in resins, coloring inks, cosmetics, liniments, waxes, soap, edible fats, mouth washes, perfumes, lotions, etc. as a cosmetic ingredient.[4] Derivatives of chlorophyll pheophorbide a 17(3)-dimethyl ester, chlorin e6 13(1)-N-methylamide-15(2)-diethylene glycol-17(3)-methyl ester are also used in photodynamic therapy as photo-sensitizer.[7] Further, research has shown the application of chlorophyll in the biomedical field as it has wound healing, antioxidant as well as anti-mutagenic properties.[8] Therefore, industries have shown interest in developing a technology for extracting chlorophyll from microalgae on a commercial scale.[8]