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Launch Vehicles, Propulsion Systems, and Payloads
Published in Janet K. Tinoco, Chunyan Yu, Diane Howard, Ruth E. Stilwell, An Introduction to the Spaceport Industry, 2020
Janet K. Tinoco, Chunyan Yu, Diane Howard, Ruth E. Stilwell
Lowering launch costs is at the forefront of the thinking of many operators. Improvements in propellants are being sought to increase performance for use in single-stage-to-orbit and two-stage-to-orbit applications, and certainly the use of carrier aircraft reduces launch costs, partially due to the use of standard fuels prevalent at today’s airports. Further research and development into green fuels is making headway, particularly for satellites. AF-M315E is a hydroxyl ammonium nitrate propellant blend being developed at Ball Aerospace, Inc. as a replacement for hydrazine (Button 2017). Sweden is developing the green propellant, ammonium dinitramide, considered more hazardous than AF-M315E, but less expensive than hydrazine (Whitmore and Bulcher 2017). Finally, electric propulsion systems are being developed for satellite use while in orbit. As these systems become more prevalent, satellite propellant storage needs at spaceports will decrease as a result.
Components of Energetic Compositions
Published in John A. Conkling, Christopher J. Mocella, Chemistry of Pyrotechnics, 2019
John A. Conkling, Christopher J. Mocella
From a safety standpoint, however, dinitramide salts tend to have much lower melting temperatures than perchlorate salts: potassium dinitramide melts at 128°C, versus potassium perchlorate at 356°C, and ammonium dinitramide melts at 93°C (less than the boiling point of water!) versus ammonium perchlorate decomposing—not melting—around 200°C. This can be both a benefit for rapid burning (propellants) as well as a safety hazard for storage and handling, not to mention an economic consideration for decomposition over time in storage. Research in this area is ongoing, but studies by Larsson and Wingborg in the Swedish Defence Research Agency find that ADN is a promising “green” substitute for AP as well as the highly toxic and unstable (but popular in military and aerospace applications) hydrazine, N2H4 (Larsson and Wingborg 2011).
Chemical Rocket Propellants
Published in D.P. Mishra, Fundamentals of Rocket Propulsion, 2017
Advanced oxidizers should have high density, high enthalpy of formation, high oxygen balance, and environmental compatibility. Ammonium dinitramide (ADN) is considered to be a promising oxidizer as it has higher heat of formation as compared to AP and chlorine-free combustion products. When it is mixed with energetic binders like GAP, it enhances specific impulse even at a lower solid loading of 80%. But it is not preferred as it has poor thermal stability and relatively high cost of production. Another advanced oxidizer is hexanitrohexaazaisowurzitane HNIW (CL20). It is one of the most powerful and dense single-component explosives. Although it is explosive by nature, it can be used in rocket propellant formulations in place of HMX. Hydrazinium nitroformate (HNF) is basically the salt of nitroform and hydrazine that is considered to be a promising oxidizer. This oxidizer with new energetic binders can have higher burn rates and specific impulse values as compared to conventional propellant. Many other energetic explosives with caged structure, namely, hydrazinium mono and diperchlorates, hydroxyl amine perchlorates, and difluramino compounds are being explored in order to enhance the performance of solid propellant. Interested readers can refer to advanced books on propellants and explosives [3].
Analysis of Dispersibility Effect of Carbon Additives on Ignitability of Ammonium-Dinitramide-Based Ionic Liquid Propellants Using Continuous Wave Laser Heating
Published in Combustion Science and Technology, 2022
Such monopropellants with low toxicities are called “green propellants” (Nosseir, Cervone, and Pasini 2021). Several green propellants consist of high energy materials (HEMs) to enhance their performance and achieve high energy densities. Most HEMs are solid and require the use of some solvents for their liquification. Generally, HEMs are liquified using a small volume of water owing to their hygroscopicity. For example, aqueous propellants based on hydroxylammonium nitrate (HAN) (e.g., Hori et al. 2019; Spores, Masse, and Kimbrel 2013) and ammonium dinitramide (ADN) (e.g., Persson et al. 2012; Wingborg 2019) have primarily been investigated across the world. However, although the utilization of HEMs can increase the energy densities of green propellants, the use of a solvent is expected to decrease their combustion temperatures and specific impulses. Therefore, the application of solvents to HEMs might hinder the attainment of high energy densities of green propellants. A solution to this is to use an extremely small amount of solvent, or to apply a liquefaction method without using any solvents
An overview over dinitramide anion and compounds based on it
Published in Indian Chemical Engineer, 2020
EM’s compounds are basically made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) molecules, along with the presence of metals like lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), potassium (K), etc. [3]. EM’s which are composed of only C, H, N and O are ammonium dinitramide (ADN) [NH4N(NO2)2], ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), HNIW (hexanitro hexaazaisowurtzitane) [C6H6N6(NO2)6], etc. On the other hand, explosives consisted of metals along with C, H, N, or O are potassium nitrate (KNO3), sodium azide (NaN3), mercury fulminate [Hg(CNO)2], etc. However, EM’s with high oxygen and nitrogen content in its molecular structure are highly desirable for applications such as in environmentally safe rocket/ missile propulsion, explosives and pyrotechnics. Some of the new energetic materials of this class are tinitramides, tetrazoles, azides, heterocyclic N-oxides, nitramines, nitroamines and dinitramides [4].
Optimisation and performance evaluation of an environmentally friendly rocket composite propellant
Published in Indian Chemical Engineer, 2019
Gbadebo Omoniyi Adeniyi, Jamiu Adetayo Adeniran, Adewole Johnson Adesanmi, Funsho Alaba Akeredolu, Jacob Ademola Sonibare
Many researches on composite solid propellants have been performed over the past few decades and much progress has been made [5–7]. However, most of the propellants were made with constituents (ammonium perchlorate, magnesium, boron) that are hazardous to lives and properties. Ammonium perchlorate-based propellant liberates hydrochloric acid which is environmentally undesirable [8]. Magnesium present in the propellant is attributed to the emissions of dangerous magnesium oxide [9]. Ammonium nitrate produces purely gaseous products. This reduces the amount of particulate emissions. However, this constituent has a low surface temperature and a low burn rate. The decomposition chemistry of ammonium nitrate is largely responsible for the low energy released [10]. Thus, this makes the ignition of the propellant a big challenge. Ammonium dinitramide decomposes very rapidly and is potentially a good propellant [11–13]. However, this constituent from the reproductive, fertility, pre-implantation and post-implantation studies is embryotoxic, and a mouse embryo toxicity study also showed that ADN affects the embryo [14]. Therefore, design or improving the propellant performances which meet future emissions regulations with a minimal pollution cost penalty, an optimised mixture ratio, good ballistic characteristics and readily available constituents is of great importance and remains highly empirical.