China 
Africa 
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The Human Immune System Seen from a Biomedical Engineering Viewpoint
Published in Robert B. Northrop, Endogenous and Exogenous Regulation and Control of Physiological Systems, 2020
It is worth remarking that other retroviruses attack immune system cells; for example, the feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and the human T-lymphotropic virus 1 (HTLV-1) both infect an immune system’s T-cells, causing leukemia and immune suppression. The Visna virus of sheep attacks their monocytes/macrophages, causing progressively debilitated immune function and CNS problems. The Visna virus and human HIV are structurally similar, yet Visna does not attack sheep’s T-cells.111
Estimation of the doubling time and reproduction number for COVID-19
Published in Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering, 2022
Shamim Ahmed, Mohammad Shemanto, Hasin Azhari, Golam Zakaria
Many have used epidemic models to estimate the epidemiological features. However, calculating R0 accurately is a challenge. The complexity of R0 suggests estimating it more carefully (Delamater et al. 2019). He et al. (2020) conducted a meta-analysis to synthesize the reported R0. Xu et al. (2020) estimated this metric by using maximum likelihood method. The study shows the time-varying estimation of the effective reproduction number (Rt) using the sequential Bayesian method. This measures the potential transmission capacity of the disease and intervention effect. Zhuang et al. (2020) modelled the transmission process with a stochastic model, and estimated R0. Khajanchi and Sarkar (2020) estimated R0 > 1 in India (neighboring country of Bangladesh) using their model. The basic reproduction number was derived by Khajanchi et al. (2021) for HTLV-I (Human T-lymphotropic virus 1) viral infection. Ullah et al. (2018) calculated R0 for TB (Tuberculosis) virus. Alzahrani et al. (2021) estimated R0 for Zika Virus. Since Td can be estimated directly from data and estimates of delays are relatively consistent, sophisticated models are not required to infer when action is urgent. Swati and Prakash (2020) demonstrated how to calculate and interpret the doubling time for infectious disease.