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Physical Ergonomics of Distance Running Footwear
Published in Paul M. Salmon, Scott McLean, Clare Dallat, Neil Mansfield, Colin Solomon, Adam Hulme, Human Factors and Ergonomics in Sport, 2020
Laurent Malisoux, Daniel Theisen
Although barefoot running might enhance running economy by eliminating shoe mass (Fuller et al., 2015), it also requires additional muscular effort to cushion the impact of the foot with the ground. In cushioned shoes, this effect is achieved by the midsole material, but the additional mass increases the metabolic cost. Thus, shoe cushioning and shoe mass affect running economy in opposing directions. The ‘cost of cushioning’ hypothesis during barefoot running was first suggested by Frederick et al. (1983) and later confirmed in a study where slabs of shoe midsole material were attached to a treadmill to eliminate the confounding factor of shoe mass (Tung et al., 2014). As predicted, running barefoot on foam cushioning slabs required 1.83% less metabolic energy compared to running barefoot on the rigid treadmill belt. Additionally, running in cushioned shoes (230 g each; 10 mm of foam midsole) required a similar metabolic cost to running barefoot in the rigid condition. The theory was additionally supported by a study demonstrating that shod running had a lower metabolic cost than barefoot running for footwear conditions of equal mass (achieved through attaching small lead strips to each foot/shoe) (Franz et al., 2012). The latter observation suggests that running barefoot offers no metabolic advantage over running in lightweight, cushioned shoes.
Neuromuscular Adaptations in Running
Published in Youlian Hong, Routledge Handbook of Ergonomics in Sport and Exercise, 2013
de Koning (1992) suggested that neurologic adaptation may result from barefoot running. He noted significant differences between shod and barefoot running in EMG activity of the tibialis anterior muscle, with higher activity observed during barefoot running. He suggested that this difference may be due to an attempt of the neuromuscular system to attenuate the ground impact force by controlling plantar flexion and/or foot pronation during landing. Barefoot running was also found to elicit a lower landing velocity than shod running. Whether these adaptations are more about protection, comfort or fatigue remains to be answered (de Koning, 1992). Based on early and more contemporary research, it is evident that barefoot running will influence gait pattern, lower extremity muscle activation patterns and leg stiffness, economy and potentially injury incidence. However, neuromuscular adaptations that develop from introduction of barefoot running are yet to be clearly established. Further, whether adaptive responses to barefoot running develop as a result of protection from injury (i.e. shock attenuation) or more from an inherent drive for higher economy of transport is unknown. For further information on the evolutionary influences of barefoot running and its medical implications, Lieberman (2012) provides a review of these topics.
Highlighting the present state of biomechanics in shoe research (2000–2023)
Published in Footwear Science, 2023
Benno M. Nigg, Sandro Nigg, Fabian Hoitz, Ashna Subramanium, Jordyn Vienneau, John William Wannop, Arash Khassetarash, Shahab Alizadeh, Emily Matijevich, Eric C. Honert, W. Brent Edwards, Maurice Mohr
Although this paradigm is listed separately, it combines several theories that partially overlap with the impact and pronation paradigms. Specifically, shoes with thinner midsoles and reduced heel-to-toe drop are thought to encourage a non-rearfoot strike pattern, which in turn can reduce external impact forces and/or loading rates and/or foot pronation (Hamill et al., 2011). Furthermore, running barefoot or in minimalist shoes may improve intrinsic foot muscle strength and sensory input from the plantar surface, and thereby reduce the risk of some running-related overuse injuries such as plantar fasciopathy (Goldmann et al., 2013; McKeon et al., 2015; Robbins & Waked, 1997). Two prospective trials have demonstrated that the preventative effect of low-drop shoes/minimalist shoes depends on a number of covariates including training distances, body mass, and running experience (Fuller et al., 2017; Malisoux et al., 2016), while the mechanisms underlying these relationships remain unclear. Another prospective study demonstrated that barefoot runners exhibit a higher occurrence of lower leg running-related overuse injuries while shod runners report more knee and hip running-related overuse injuries without an overall reduction of running-related overuse injuries risk for any of the two conditions (Altman & Davis, 2016).
Barefoot, minimal, and shod walking in habituated runners
Published in Footwear Science, 2019
Jereme Outerleys, Alessandra Matias, Caleb Johnson, Irene S. Davis
Minimal footwear is designed to mimic the barefoot condition, with biomechanical studies supporting this for running. The biomechanics associated with walking in minimal shoes, however, has been far less studied (Wallace, Koch, Holowka, & Lieberman, 2018). An RCT using a minimal footwear intervention in women with knee osteoarthritis (OA) has shown reductions in the knee adduction movement, a risk factor for the progression of knee OA (Trombini-Souza et al., 2011). More recently, Ridge et al. (2019) have shown that simply walking in minimal shoes increases intrinsic foot muscle strength, decreasing injury risk. Despite these benefits, very few studies have directly compared walking mechanics using minimal shoes to barefoot or conventional shoes. Most biomechanical investigations on barefoot walking have utilized conventional or experimental footwear. These studies often lack both user habituation and the inclusion of a minimal shoe.
Tibiotalar cartilage stress corresponds to T2 mapping: application to barefoot running in novice and marathon-experienced runners
Published in Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering, 2019
Hyun Kyung Kim, Ali Mirjalili, Anthony Doyle, Justin Fernandez
This study integrates gait analysis, FE modelling of joint cartilage stress and MRI-derived T2 maps to investigate association of predicted tibiotalar cartilage stress with T2 functional imaging in response to mid-distance barefoot running. The findings from this study support the following conclusions. First, FE predicted tibiotalar cartilage stress patterns correspond to T2 map patterns, reporting large stresses in the anterior, posterior, and lateral tibiotalar cartilage corresponding to high T2 uptake. This suggests that tibiotalar cartilage stress may play a likely mechanical role in fluid build-up and possible inflammation supported by high T2 uptake in those regions. Second, barefoot ME runners exhibited reduced tibiotalar cartilage stresses post running corresponding with no increase in baseline T2 values. The experienced runners in this study support previous findings that barefoot running can be beneficial as it may reduce peak impact force and impact rate (Lieberman et al. 2010). However, in contrast, novice runners from this study were unable to reduce stress in their ankle cartilage. This is likely in part due to the different running strategies displayed by ME and novice runners. ME runners presented a coping strategy post-running where they reduce loading primarily in the medial metatarsals and shift this to the lateral metatarsals and midfoot. In contrast, novice runners showed a different strategy by reducing loading in the medial toes and shifting this to the lateral toes and midfoot. ME runners appear to reduce stress and prevent elevated fluid gathering in cartilage (measured by T2 maps) whereas novice runners appear to be less experienced and maintain similar stress levels after running leading to elevated T2 levels. This suggests that it may be the repetitive loading in novice runners at consistently high cartilage stress levels that leads to increased T2 values. In response, ME runners reduce their cartilage loading so this effect is not observed or possibly delayed.