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Designing for Upper Torso and Arm Anatomy
Published in Karen L. LaBat, Karen S. Ryan, Human Body, 2019
The nipple is surrounded by lobes of mammary gland tissue. Adipose tissue fills the spaces between the lobes. Lactiferous ducts (milk ducts) from the mammary tissue expand into cavities beneath the nipple (Pandya & Moore, 2011). On the surface of the breast, the nipple is surrounded by the circular, more densely pigmented zone, the areola. Sensory nerves in the skin of the areola are sensitive to cold, touch, and sexual arousal. The skin wrinkles and the nipple becomes erect in response to these stimuli. Cooper’s suspensory ligaments, specialized connective tissue structures, pass through the breast tissue to loosely attach the breast to the dermis of the skin over the breast tissue and to underlying muscle. Support bras and sports bras are designed to restrict breast movement on the chest, to limit stress to these ligaments.
Physical Basis of X-ray Breast Imaging
Published in Paolo Russo, Handbook of X-ray Imaging, 2017
Chai Hong Yeong, Kwan Hoong Ng, Noriah Jamal
The breast is the tissue overlying the chest (pectoral) muscles. A normal breast consists of adipose (fat), fibrous, and glandular tissues. The function of the glandular tissue is to produce milk, whereby the fibrous and adipose tissues provide support to the breast and form its shape. The glandular portion of the breast consists of 15 to 20 lobes. Within each lobe are smaller structures known as lobules, where milk is produced. The milk travels through a network of tiny tubes called ducts (about 2.0 to 4.5 mm in diameter). The ducts connect and come together into larger ducts which eventually exit the skin in the nipple. The darker area of skin surrounding the nipple is known as the areola. Morphologically, the breast is a cone, with the base at the chest wall and the apex at the nipple. The superficial tissue layer (superficial fascia) is separated from the skin by 0.5 to 2.5 cm of subcutaneous fat (adipose tissue). The suspensory Cooper's ligaments are fibrous tissue prolongations that radiate from the superficial fascia to the skin envelope. Figure 28.1 shows the anatomical structures of a human breast while Figure 28.2 shows an example of a mammographic image of a normal breast.
Reproduction, development and work
Published in Chris Winder, Neill Stacey, Occupational Toxicology, 2004
The breasts (or mammary glands) are present in both genders, but only function biologically in females. The main function of the breast is to produce milk for the nourishment of a newborn infant. The breasts develop in females at puberty through stimulation by hormones, especially oestrogens. Anatomically, each breast consists of glandular tissue organised into 15–25 lobes, separated from each other by connective tissue and fat. Slightly below the centre of each breast is a pigmented area, the areola, which surrounds a central protruding nipple. During the process of lactation, milk is secreted from the glandular tissue, and passes along the lactiferous ducts from each lobule, which connects to the nipple.
A CNN-based methodology for breast cancer diagnosis using thermal images
Published in Computer Methods in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering: Imaging & Visualization, 2021
J. Zuluaga-Gomez, Z. Al Masry, K. Benaggoune, S. Meraghni, N. Zerhouni
The rapid growth of virtual collaboration, programming tools and computing performance have raised the interest of many researchers over CAD systems in the biomedical area. Arena et al. (Arena et al. 2003) summarise the benefits of thermography over the classical methods for breast cancer diagnosis. They tested a weighted algorithm in 109 tissue proven cases of breast cancer, that generates positive or negative result based on six features (threshold, nipple, areola, global, asymmetry and hot spot). Krawczyk et al. (Krawczyk et al. 2013) propose an ensemble method for clustering and classification in breast cancer thermal images; additionally, a 5 × 2 K-fold cross-validation was made to reduce the bias and obtain a more robust model. Later, in 2009 Schaefer et al. (Schaefer et al. 2009) performed a fuzzy logic classification algorithm on 150 cases having an accuracy of 80%; they explain that statistical feature analysis is a key source of information for achieving high accuracy, i.e. symmetry between left and right breast, standard temperature deviation, max-min temperatures, among others. In addition, some researchers centred their studies on the tumours characteristics and behaviour such as Partridge and Wrobel (Partridge and Wrobel 2007), whose designed a method using dual reciprocity joined with genetic algorithms to localise tumours, where they found that smaller and deeply located tumours produce only a limited thermal perturbation making harder their detection. Contrary, it is possible to determine the tumours characteristics when the thermal surface behaviour is known, Das and Mishra (Das and Mishra 2013) affirmed this. Kennedy et al. (Kennedy et al. 2009) make a comparison between breast cancer screening techniques such as thermography, mammography and ultrasound.
A survey of breast cancer screening techniques: thermography and electrical impedance tomography
Published in Journal of Medical Engineering & Technology, 2019
J. Zuluaga-Gomez, N. Zerhouni, Z. Al Masry, C. Devalland, C. Varnier
The term “thermography” is not limited to measure the skin’s temperature, but also rearrange these values in one “image”, like an illustration, creating a heat map of the breast’s ROI, where each “pixel” express an equivalent temperature value. Ng et al. mention that the presence of localised or focal areas of approximately 1.0 °C or more (including the areola region) and significant vascular asymmetry forming “clusters” are features that need to be considered as abnormal [48]. They obtained global accuracy of 59%, and true positive accuracy of 74% using Bayes Net. Arena et al. [50] in 2003 mention the benefits of the digital infra-red imaging also called “DII”. They tested a weighted algorithm in 109 tissue proven cases of breast cancer, generating positive or negative evaluation result based on six features (threshold, nipple, areola, global, asymmetry and hot spot), they employed an infra-red camera with a 320 × 240 pixels (temperature points), and sensitivity of 0.05 degrees. Contrary, some authors mention that the static temperature measurement could carry out mislabelling during the evaluation process, for that reason they adviced to use a “dynamical” approach instead. Comparatively, some researchers are not only focussed on breast cancer labelling, but rather in the localisation and size itself of the tumours. Partridge and Wrobel modelled in 2007 a method using dual reciprocity coupled with genetic algorithms to localise and size breast tumours; nonetheless, they concluded that smaller and deeply located tumours, produce only a limited perturbation making then impossible to be detected [51]; The estimation of tumour characteristics can be found in [52]. Kennedy et al. compared the advantages and disadvantages of thermography, mammograms and ultrasound. Arena et al. [53] specified that thermograms are early indicators of functional abnormalities that could lead to breast cancer.
Impact of implant-based breast reconstruction on bra fit
Published in Ergonomics, 2022
Krista M. Nicklaus, Yen-Tung Liu, Chi Liu, Jevon Chu, Eloise Jewett, Karen Bravo, Mary Catherine Bordes, Jun Liu, Gregory P. Reece, Summer E. Hanson, Fatima Merchant, Mia K. Markey
Changes in four of the clinical bra measurements indicate a need to change the bra cup shape: the top point of breast base to bust point, front point of breast base to bust point, under-bust point of breast base to bust point, and side point of breast base to bust point. The base of an implant-based reconstructed breast is more circular than that of a native breast, and the breast shape is more semi-spherical. During mastectomy, oftentimes the nipple-areola complex tissue is removed, which contributes to creating the natural shape and projection of the breast. Without this tissue, the reconstructed breast shape is formed from the shape of the implant. This change causes the bust point or apex of the breast to be located more superior, medial, and posterior than its normal position on the native breast. The four measurements of the breast base change in conjunction with each other in reconstructed breasts. The under-bust point of breast base to bust point measurement (Figure 14, Supplementary Figure 3) increased due to the upward shift in the location of the bust point and lack of ptosis. The front point of breast base to bust point measurement (Figures 3, 14) decreased due to the medial movement of the bust point. The top point of breast base to bust point measurement (Supplementary Figures 2, 9) remained about the same for both the participants with unilateral reconstruction and participants with bilateral reconstruction. The path length remained about the same even though the bust point location shifted vertically because of the breast shape change such that the upper pole of the breast was fuller and more rounded. The side point of breast base to bust point distance remained about the same for the bilateral participants (Supplementary Figure 8) and decreased slightly (not statistically significantly) for the unilateral patients (Supplementary Figure 4). The lack of change in this measurement can be attributed to competing changes in the placement of the bust point, breast size, and lateral pole fullness. Thus, the bra cup design for implant-based reconstructed breasts needs to be adapted to smoothly cover the semi-spherical shape of the breast, especially over the upper pole of the breast, as shown in Figure 18. These results concur with LaBat et al. who found patients complained their implants were ‘too rounded’ to find a bra that adequately fit (LaBat, Ryan, and Sanden-Will 2017). Since we found no associations between implant shape (round vs. anatomical) and post-reconstruction measurements, we believe a semi-spherical bra cup shape will serve the largest number of patients. Further research will be needed to determine whether a different design is necessary for patients with anatomically-shaped implants.