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Operating at the Sharp End: The Complexity of Human Error
Published in Marilyn Sue Bogner, Human Error in Medicine, 2018
Richard I. Cook, David D. Woods
For an example from outside of medicine, consider the task of en route flight planning in commercial aviation. Pilots sometimes need to modify their flight plans en route when conditions change (e.g., weather). Some of the goals that need to be considered are avoiding passenger discomfort (i.e., avoiding turbulence), minimizing fuel expenditure, and minimizing the difference between the target arrival time and actual arrival time. Depending on the particulars of the actual situation where the crew and dispatchers have to consider modifying the plan, these goals can interact, requiring prioritization and trade-offs. Layton, Smith, and McCoy (in press) created simulated flight situations where goal conflicts arose and studied how the distributed system of dispatchers, pilots, and computer-based advisors attempted to handle these situations.
Flight Management Systems
Published in Cary R. Spitzer, Uma Ferrell, Thomas Ferrell, Digital Avionics Handbook, 2017
The crew can modify the flight plan at any time. The flight plan modification can come from crew selections or via data link from the airline operational communications or air traffic control in response to a tactical situation. An edit to the flight plan creates a modified (or temporary) version of the flight plan that is a copy of the active flight plan plus any accrued changes made to it. Trajectory predictions are performed on the modified flight plan with each edit and periodically updated, which allows the crew to evaluate the impact of the flight plan changes prior to acceptance. When the desired changes have been made to the crew’s satisfaction this modified flight plan is activated by the crew.
Air Traffic Control (ATC) surveillance environment
Published in Busyairah Syd Ali, Aircraft Surveillance Systems, 2017
Currently, most flights are planned via intermediate way-points rather than direct routes, hence limiting the opportunity to obtain changes to cleared flight profiles. This has an adverse effect on aircraft operating costs. Flights operating outside radar and VHF coverage at present are monitored on the basis of the current flight plan (air traffic control clearance) and the pilot-reported position (air-report). The flight plan describes the assigned route along which the aircraft is expected to fly. The position reports, transmitted via HF at relatively infrequent intervals, enable the controller to monitor the aircraft’s progress for conformance to its air traffic control clearance (ICAO, 1990). The application of procedural ATC ensures an adequate level of safety, at the expense of optimal flight profiles and system capacity. However, the ATC services to aircraft operating in non-radar environments employ varying degrees of automation and use different procedures for controlling traffic. As a result, pilots are required to be familiar with the individual control aspects of all flight information regions (FIRs) their flights traverse.
A Two-Stage Model of Diversion Knowledge and Skills Highlights Where Pilot Factors Impact Safety-Related Outcomes
Published in The International Journal of Aerospace Psychology, 2021
Kathleen Van Benthem, Chris M. Herdman
Before entering the aircraft, pilots were briefed on a predetermined visual flight rules flight plan. Pilots were instructed to communicate with air traffic control or ground services as per the aerodrome communication procedures. The weather experienced by the pilots was clear with no winds. The flight plan included a short leg from a large airport to a nearby GA aerodrome for two touch and go practice patterns. After departure from the small aerodrome, pilots thought they were to follow a broad river to another large airport, where they were to complete their flight. After the final touch and go and departure from the aerodrome an unexpected message from ATC instructed pilots to divert from their plan and fly to an alternate aerodrome, orbit at a prescribed altitude, and wait for further instructions. A possible ground stop due to weather at the planned destination was the reason provided by ATC for the diversion. The diversion occurred about 20 minutes into the scenario, after pilots had time to establish several communication events with ATC, and were immersed in the flight simulation tasks. The cockpit was outfitted with visual flight rules (VFR) navigation charts, a flight supplement document, and standard non-electronic navigational aids necessary for locating the new airfield. Pilots were expected to locate the alternate airfield on the map(s) provided and to determine an appropriate heading without assistance from ATC. While the use of GPS and electronic navigation aids is common in GA, the present research required that pilots use only the paper-based charts and material provided. Limiting navigation resources to paper-based charts etc., familiar to all pilots, controlled for the confound that would arise by using electronic flight bags (EFBs) in this work, since some pilots in the sample may have had no or little experience with EFBs. Further tasks included changing radio frequencies, as necessary. Throughout the flight, pilots heard other aircraft communicating with ATC or ground services. Listening to other pilot communication was the primary method of determining the location and intentions of other relevant aircraft. As an index of mental workload and as an informal auditory acuity check along the route, an auditory peripheral detection task (PDT) was employed, whereby pilots were asked to respond with a button press (using a thumb switch) whenever they detected the PDT tone. Tones were played randomly throughout the flight approximately every 5 to 10 seconds.