China
Africa
Explore chapters and articles related to this topic
Introduction
Published in Lauren Blackwell Landon, Kelley J. Slack, Eduardo Salas, Psychology and Human Performance in Space Programs, 2020
Kathryn E. Keeton, David Musson
ISS presented even greater technological and operational challenges and included multiple partners in its design, development, and construction. As of January 2018, over 320 individuals representing 18 different countries have stayed on board, with contributions (either through modules or robotics) from NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency, the Canadian Space Agency, and the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (https://www.space.com/16748-international-space-station.html). Missions on ISS can last 6 months or even longer, with a handful of astronauts living on board for upwards of a year. Such individuals will typically train for 18–24 months, spending a significant portion of their training away from home, often training at other international partner locations. In addition, the ISS crews are often comprised of six individuals, with three individuals rotating out approximately every 3 months. These additional mission-related factors in both coordination and logistical operations of crew training and composition among international partners (and their direct impacts on other important factors like team cohesion and collaboration) highlight the magnitude of complexity the mutual partnership of the ISS creates for successful operations and mission execution.
Into Space European Astronaut Selection and Space Flight Participant Selection
Published in Robert Bor, Carina Eriksen, Todd P. Hubbard, Ray King, Pilot Selection, 2019
Anna Seemüller, Yvonne Pecena, Justin Mittelstädt, Peter Maschke
In the early days of human space flight, the first astronauts were recruited from military test pilots and later civil pilots, when astronauts were mostly required to pilot the spacecraft and to perform the necessary operative tasks. With technical enhancements and growing experience in space flight, increasing research opportunities in space opened up additional areas of work for astronauts. Since the mid-1960s, scientists and engineers without pilot experience have been able to apply to become astronauts. Therefore, the general requirements for astronauts shifted. Having a pilot background was no longer obligatory, and the profession opened up to a larger variety of scientific job backgrounds ranging from natural scientists, mathematicians, and engineers to medical doctors. Conducting experiments has become a major part of the astronaut’s job, leading to a stronger focus on the scientific qualifications of the candidates. Nowadays, the typical role of European astronauts is described by ESA as follows: “[They] join long-duration flights aboard the International Space Station [ISS], performing experiments and operating the Station’s systems. They assemble, activate and check out new Station elements, undertake scientific research and even act as test subjects in life sciences experiments” (European Space Agency, 2019). Besides the roles of astronaut pilots and astronaut scientists, e.g. as a mission or payload specialist, professional astronauts can be assigned the roles of commander, flight engineer, medical specialist, or educator astronaut (Steimle & Norberg, 2013, p. 256).
Satellites
Published in Mohammad Razani, Information, Communication, and Space Technology, 2017
The other type is communication satellites that are considered to be relays in space. Communication satellites relay telephone calls and television signals down to Earth, and relay voice communication between the astronauts orbiting on the space shuttle and mission controllers on Earth. More details on each one of the above types of satellites will be provided in this chapter.
Everything you wanted to know about space radiation but were afraid to ask
Published in Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C, 2021
Jeffery Chancellor, Craig Nowadly, Jacqueline Williams, Serena Aunon-Chancellor, Megan Chesal, Jayme Looper, Wayne Newhauser
Since the onset of crewed spaceflight, it has been presumed that exposure to space radiation increases the risks of astronauts developing cancer, experiencing central nervous system decrements, exhibiting degenerative tissue effects or developing acute radiation syndrome.1–3,20,25,37,38 The majority of epidemiologic data resulting from the astronaut cohort are from exposures incurred on missions during the Space Shuttle era, where less than 100 mSv was accumulated by an astronaut. Over the past decade, however, the nominal mission length for astronauts has increased to at least 6 months in duration with exposures of 1 mSv to 1.5 mSv per day, depending on the phase of the solar cycle, number of spacewalks performed, and level of solar activity. Even with increasing mission length and radiation exposures (e.g., Figure 4), it is noteworthy that to date no astronaut has been diagnosed with a cancer that is attributable to space radiation. Although the sample size is small, followup times for large exposures are limited, and cancer latency periods are years to decades. In addition, the neurocognitive deficits and vascular endothelial dysfunction leading to increased cardiovascular mortality have not been demonstrated compared to analog populations.
Operational Considerations for Space Fission Power and Propulsion Platforms
Published in Nuclear Technology, 2021
Andrew C. Klein, Allen Camp, Patrick McClure, Susan Voss, Elan Borenstein, Paul VanDamme
Ideally, manual maintenance requirements for reactors and associated systems should be minimized. To date there have been no crewed space missions involving a nuclear reactor, and uncrewed missions have not allowed for maintenance. Manual maintenance activities may incur a number of risks to astronauts either in space or on a surface. There is increased potential for radiation exposure, along with the normal risks of astronauts performing activities outside a spacecraft or habitat.
Why Human Enhancement is Necessary for Successful Human Deep-space Missions
Published in The New Bioethics, 2019
Konrad Szocik, Martin Braddock
Astronauts face greater for long interplanetary journey. Some astronauts have spent one year in space, such as Scott Kelly and Mikhail Kornienko in 2015/2016 and longer such as, 437 days spent by Valeri Polyakov at the Mir space station mission in 1994/1995. However, the durations of these missions are well within the minimal time for a round trip mission to Mars, which is estimated to last 3 years.