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Penicillium and Talaromyces
Published in Dongyou Liu, Laboratory Models for Foodborne Infections, 2017
Elena Bermúdez, Félix Núñez, Josué Delgado, Miguel A. Asensio
Tests based on the use of aquatic animals, including crustaceans and protozoa, are among the most extensively used in screening bioassays to detect mycotoxins (Table 35.2). The brine shrimp test using Artemia salina, an aquatic crustacean, is perhaps one of the most extensively used screening bioassay to detect mycotoxins. Harwig and Scott44 observed that most of the Penicillium mycotoxins showed low toxicity to Artemia salina, with mortality rates lower than 50%, whereas rubratoxin B reached over 90% mortality. Moina macrocopa, another fresh water crustacean used for bioassays, was more sensitive than Artemia salina to ochratoxin A and rubratoxin B.45 Other crustaceans have been also used, such as Daphnia magna to detect toxicity of patulin46 and Cyclops fuscus that is highly sensitive to the lethal effects of rubratoxin B and patulin at low doses.47
Toxicity effects of mycotoxins and autophagy: a mechanistic view
Published in Toxin Reviews, 2021
Saba Ariafar, Akram Oftadeh Harsin, Ahmad Fadaiie, Mohammad Mehdi Mahboobian, Mojdeh Mohammadi
Our perception of autophagy, and mainly its role in human disease and health, is at the initial stage. Even the greatest necessary question – whether autophagy plays a protective or a harmful role – is not obviously established for most diseases and toxicological situations. A large number of recent articles indicate a correlation between autophagy signaling pathway and exposure to mycotoxins. It is still unclear whether autophagy causes cell death after mycotoxins exposure or helps with the mechanism of resistance. Most mycotoxins, except a few cases such as patulin and chytochalasin, induce the molecular cascade of autophagy and ultimately induce autophagy. The most important point is that extreme autophagy can be just as harmful as defective autophagy. Besides, that increase of autophagosomes is not always due to the elevation of formation but because of autophagosome degradation inhibition. A better perception of the controlling pathways that regulate autophagy will be key in this regard. It should be noted that a number of mycotoxins that are mentioned in this article (cyclopiazonic acid, penicillic acid, ergot alkaloids, sterigmatocystin, and rubratoxin) have not been provided with information on their association with autophagy as long as this review was written. Our understanding of molecular mechanisms of autophagy is improving rapidly. By regulating autophagy, we can overcome disease or promote health in the near future.