China 
Africa 
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Use of Critically Important Antimicrobials in Food Production
Published in M. Lindsay Grayson, Sara E. Cosgrove, Suzanne M. Crowe, M. Lindsay Grayson, William Hope, James S. McCarthy, John Mills, Johan W. Mouton, David L. Paterson, Kucers’ The Use of Antibiotics, 2017
Large amounts of antibiotics are used in aquaculture but there is generally poor documentation of the antibiotic types or quantities. World aquaculture production is rapidly increasing, with countries in Asia accounting for over 80% of the total production. The antibiotics are most often given as medicated feed or by adding antimicrobial agents directly to the water (“immersion therapy”)—commonly used agents include amoxicillin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, erythromycin, streptomycin, furazolidone, nitrofurantoin, oxolinic acid, enrofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, flumequine, tetracyclines, and sulfonamides (Le Hello et al., 2011; WHO, 2006; Angulo, 1999; Duran and Marshall, 2005; FAO, 2007; Collignon, 2013b). In addition, large amounts of antibiotics are added into waterways via the run-off from aquaculture farms that contains fish feed. In many developing countries, aquaculture is integrated and animal and human fecal waste is added to fish ponds. In this “soup,” resistant bacteria from humans and animals are mixed with environmental bacteria and potentially multiple antibiotics contained in fish feed. As an example, aquaculture likely facilitated genetic transfers in multiresistant Salmonella Kentucky (Le Hello et al., 2011; Collignon, 2013).
Bacterial death from treatment with fluoroquinolones and other lethal stressors
Published in Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy, 2021
Studies of bacterial nucleoids demonstrate quinolone-mediated chromosome fragmentation. When cells are lysed gently in the absence of protein denaturants, nucleoids can be isolated in which the DNA is intact and negatively supercoiled. These structures are readily recovered when bacteriostatic concentrations of nalidixic/oxolinic acid are applied to cultures [19]. However, at high, lethal quinolone concentrations, nucleoid sedimentation rate decreases, supercoiling is lost, and chromosome fragmentation is detected [22,33]. Since unrepaired double-strand DNA breaks are lethal, chromosome fragmentation has been a reasonable explanation for quinolone-mediated killing. A key, unanswered question is how elevating the quinolone concentration causes chromosome fragmentation.
The war against bacteria, from the past to present and beyond
Published in Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy, 2022
Lucrezia Bottalico, Ioannis Alexandros Charitos, Maria Assunta Potenza, Monica Montagnani, Luigi Santacroce
This large class of synthetic microbicide molecules includes older compounds, such as oxolinic acid and nalidixic acid, and the currently available group of fluoroquinolones, derived from nalidixic acid with the introduction of a fluorine atom in their chemical structure to enhance their stability, bioavailability, and antimicrobial activity.