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Offshore Storage
Published in Sukumar Laik, Offshore Petroleum Drilling and Production, 2018
Early cargoes carried in ships used to be wine, which was transported in wooden casks called tuns. A tun was a cask of wine that could be carried in a cart pulled by two horses, as shown in Figure 7.6. In 1350, in England, an import levy of 2 shillings per tun of wine was granted to the crown. This import payment became known as tunnage. Ships paid tunnage ostensibly to pay for the protection of trade at sea, and all English kings from Henry VI to James I received this tax. In chartering ships, it became common practice to describe a ship in terms of its tunnage, that is, the number of tuns it could carry. Eventually the tun was fixed by weight in Great Britain as being equal to 20 hundredweight or 2240 pounds. Today, many calculations in marine work still use a weight measure of a ton equal to 2240 pounds. In the United States, this is called the long ton to differentiate it from the short ton, which is equal to 2000 pounds.
Coal
Published in Gregory T. Haugan, The New Triple Constraints for Sustainable Projects, Programs, and Portfolios, 2016
Overlay:Coal Reserves. Worldwide, compared to all other fossil fuels, coal is the most abundant and more widely distributed energy source across the continents. Currently, total world recoverable coal reserves are estimated at approximately 900 billion short tons. (A short ton is a unit of weight equal to 2,000 pounds.) Based on current world coal production rates, the resulting ratio of coal reserves to production is approximately 130 years. Coal will eventually run out, almost certainly by the end of the next century.
Modeling of an Energy-Diverse Embedded Grid for Microreactor Integration
Published in Nuclear Technology, 2023
Lucas Wodrich, Alvin J. H. Lee, Tomasz Kozlowski, Caleb S. Brooks
Table IV summarizes the cumulative results tallied over the entire year for the modeled cases. The fuel cost is assumed from the 2019 historical price data to be $2.87/MMBTU for natural gas (1 MMBTU = 106 BTU) (Ref. 27) and $34.58/short-ton for coal (1 short-ton = 2000 lb = 907.18 kg) (Ref. 28). For the calculation of the electricity import cost, the MISO real-time price from 2019 is used along with the quantity of electricity imported as calculated within the model. When electricity is imported, an electric delivery charge of $25/MW‧h is added (this value can vary over time). This delivery charge is not added to the revenue when exporting electricity, making the production of excess electricity less lucrative. For the calculation of CO2 emissions, the carbon dioxide emission coefficients29 are used together with the fuel utilization or average fuel mix (e.g., 69% coal and 1% natural gas for imported electricity13) in order to obtain the emissions per megawatt hour of electricity produced or imported. The differences in summed costs (imported electricity cost/revenue plus fossil fuel costs) between the base case and the cases with microreactors can be interpreted as the annual cost that the microreactor deployment would have to beat in order to be economically viable. This includes the nuclear fuel cost, operations and maintenance cost, and capital investment over the lifetime of the microreactor. The annual nuclear fuel cost of a microreactor is not included due to its unavailability.
Southeastern United States wood pellets as a global energy resource: a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment derived from empirical data
Published in International Journal of Sustainable Energy, 2018
Brandon Morrison, Jay S. Golden
Comparisons to previous literature are limited, attributable both to the limited extent of existing literature, and to variations in functional units of prior work. Reed et al. (2012) reported CO2 emissions of 203 kg per short ton of wood residue from hardwood flooring production, and another 114 kg CO2 from the wood pellet production process, for a cumulative total of 317 kg CO2. This result is much larger than our analysis, given the large impact of hardwood flooring production. Pa et al. (2012) reported CO2 emissions of 134 kg per metric ton of wood pellets produced in British Columbia. Variance in our results could result from assumptions and calculations conducted within the scope of the analyses, including differences in the underlying electricity mix employed in each analysis as well as variations in transport distances.
A lean construction and BIM interaction model for the construction industry
Published in Production Planning & Control, 2021
Hasan Gokberk Bayhan, Sevilay Demirkesen, Chengyi Zhang, Algan Tezel
Hamdi and Leite (2012) state BIM is beneficial in supporting lean practices like extensive prefabrication, JIT delivery of materials, the LPS, constraint logs, offsite/onsite prefab, push/pull planning, and weekly work planning, resulting in mutual interactions. Implementing BIM and Lean to Supply Chain Management (SCM) enables proactive and periodic reporting, real-time quality checks for stakeholders, and at least 30% of time saved thanks to accurate production and quality data (Dong, Khanzode, and Lindberg 2013). Industrialized construction practices contribute to construction planning and control for the LC/BIM interaction (Li et al. 2017a). Ansah et al. (2016) claim that the lean principles reduce project duration by 10%, increase productivity and efficiency by 20% and enhance profitability by 20–40% for Danish contractors, which can be further improved with the implementation of BIM. The Sutter Health’s Castro Valley project in California implemented LC/BIM and experienced a decrease in rework by 15% and the project is completed on budget and six weeks earlier than anticipated (Dave et al. 2013). Ghosh et al. (2014) reported substantial improvements comparing two phases of a healthcare project with reduced work hours, overtime, and rework through the LC/BIM collaboration. According to the authors, the BIM model, commitment tracking, IPD and pull planning reduced material waste by 6%, and more than 7.5 metric tons of CO2 equivalent per short ton of drywall (MTCO2E) of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in the drywall manufacturing and transportation. The design and construction of the first phase of the Istanbul Grand Airport (IGA) project, which is one of the largest in the world, achieved successful management performance measures with the Lean/BIM collaboration (Koseoglu, Sakin, and Arayici 2018; Andújar-Montoya et al. 2019).