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Persistent Organic Pollutants Used for Industrial Purposes: Origins in the Environment
Published in Narendra Kumar, Vertika Shukla, Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Environment, 2021
Brenda Natalia López Niño, Michal Jeremiáš
The sectors where the flame retardants have most frequently used are electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) sector, construction and building (including textiles and upholstery elements), and transportation. The percentage by weight of a given POP used for flame retardancy in a product depends on the FR and the polymer type. Commercial pentaBDE is present at about 10%–18% by weight in polyurethane foam (furniture and upholstery in domestic furnishing, automotive, and aviation industries; UNEP, 2006b). OctaBDE is present at 12%–18% by weight in acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene polymers, and 12%–15% in high-impact polystyrene, polybutylene terephthalate, and polyamide polymers (UNEP, 2007b). DecaBDE is used at 10%–15% by weight in plastics and polymers, and 7.5%–20% in textiles (upholstery, window blinds, curtains, mattress textiles, tents, and interior fabrics in the transportation sector; UNEP, 2014). HBCD concentrations range from 0.7% to 3.0% in expanded polystyrene and extruded polystyrene foams (UNEP, 2010). Since production of the majority of these POP-halogenated FRs has ceased, other alternative halogenated FRs have been used, such as tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), and organophosphorus FRs, such as triphenyl phosphate; they are known as novel flame retardants (NFRs) or emerging flame retardants (Pivnenko et al., 2017, Rani et al., 2014). NFRs have been found in EEE and building materials like curtains and wallpapers (Kajiwara et al., 2011).
Halogen-Based FRs
Published in Asim Kumar Roy Choudhury, Flame Retardants for Textile Materials, 2020
Although new production of Penta-BDE and Octa-BDE is being phased out voluntarily in the United States and the substances have been banned in the European Union, a large number of products containing these flame retardants are still in use. This means that their release into the environment will continue throughout product lifecycles, potentially for several more decades. In addition, the increasing use of Deca-BDE makes it important to understand its degradation in relation to the occurrence of lower-brominated PBDEs in environmental samples.
Restricted substances for textiles
Published in Textile Progress, 2022
Arun Kumar Patra, Siva Rama Kumar Pariti
As of 2000, brominated fluorocarbons (BFRs) accounted for 38% of the global demand for bromine. BFRs can be classified into five major classes, namely brominated bisphenols, diphenyl ethers, cyclododecanes, phenols and phthalic acid derivatives. The important products of industrial value are, tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), and three commercial mixtures of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) (Linda & Staskal, 2004), namely:decabromodiphenylether (DBDE),octabromodiphenylether (OBDE), andpentabromodiphenylether (pentaBDE)
Organic contaminants of emerging concern in global estuaries: Environmental occurrence, fate, and bioavailability
Published in Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2023
Yan Wu, Ruihe Jin, Qiqing Chen, Xinyu Du, Jing Yang, Min Liu
The inclusion of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDDs) in the Stockholm Convention has triggered restrictions on these notorious brominated FRs, and thus stimulated the development and application of their alternatives to meet flammability standards; recognized replacements for DecaBDE include BTBPE, DBDPE, and DP, while Firemaster 550, mainly consisting of EH-TBB and BEH-TEBP, has been introduced as the substitute for PentaBDE (Hou et al., 2021). AHFRs, often marketed as safer alternatives without rigorous testing, are lurking into consumer merchandise and ultimately into the environment (Wu et al., 2019), but their environmental data remain relatively sparse compared to the predecessors.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) levels in blood samples from children living in the metropolitan area of Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico
Published in International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 2018
Sandra T. Orta-García, Ángeles C. Ochoa-Martínez, José A. Varela-Silva, Iván N. Pérez-Maldonado
With respect to the congener profiles found in this research, the results observed in this study (main congeners were BDE99 and BDE100) are consistent with data presented in previous studies performed in Mexico (Orta-Garcia et al. 2014; Ochoa-Martinez et al. 2016; Perez-Maldonado et al. 2017), since BDE 99 and BDE 100 were also the main congeners in blood samples collected from children living in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua and San Luis Potosi, Mexico (Orta-Garcia et al. 2016; Perez-Maldonado et al. 2017). On the other hand, studies in North America have demonstrated that the main congener found in environmental and biological samples is BDE47 (NHANES IV 2009; Windham et al. 2010; Eskenazi et al. 2011), since the main congener in the leading commercial PBDEs mixture (PentaBDE) sold in North America was BDE 47. However, an increased number of recent studies are in accordance with the results found in this research (Fängström et al. 2005; Johnson-Restrepo et al. 2005; Shen et al. 2010; Orta-Garcia et al. 2012; Ding et al. 2015; Zhu et al. 2015). For example, a study that aimed to evaluate PBDEs concentrations in blood samples of 66 children living in an e-waste recycling site in China found that the congener with the higher concentrations in blood was BDE99, followed by BDE47, BDE153, and finally BDE154 (Shen et al. 2010). Also, blood samples collected from children (4–6 years of age) living in Guiyu, China were analyzed for eight BDE congeners (BDE28, −47, −99, −100, −153, −154, −183, and −209). The main congener found in the blood samples of Chinese children was BDE209, followed by BDE153 (accounted for approximately 20 % of the total PBDE burden) (Xu et al. 2014). Similar results were found in Chinese women, as BDE99 was the major congener found in blood specimens analyzed for four selected PBDE congeners (BDE47, −99, −100, and −153) (Ding et al. 2015). In Europe, BDE153 was the major congener detected in human milk samples collected from the Faroe Islands (Fängström et al. 2005). Although in North America (predominantly USA) the main congener that has been found is BDE47, several investigations are in line with our results (Johnson-Restrepo et al. 2005). In this regard, Johnson-Restrepo et al. (2005), found that BDE 153 was the dominant congener in human adipose tissue samples collected from adults in New York, USA (Johnson-Restrepo et al. 2005). All the previously cited studies suggest a possible change in the exposure profile to PBDEs and as proposed by our research group in a previous investigation (Ochoa-Martinez et al. 2016), the exposure profile to PBDEs detected in our work may be associated to (1) different exposure sources, possibly occupational; (2) metabolism of BDE 209 (main component of DecaBDE mixture), leading to the production of lower brominated congeners such as, BDE99, BDE100, BDE153, and BDE154; (3) BDE99, BDE100, BDE153, and BDE154 (penta and hexabrominated congeners) are more persistent than BDE47 (tetra-brominated congener); among others. However, additional studies are required in order to have a true tendency in the exposure profile to PBDEs in Mexican children.