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Evaluation of Water and Its Contaminants
Published in William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel, Reversibility of Chronic Disease and Hypersensitivity, Volume 5, 2017
William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel
Haloacetic acids have been classified by the EPA as possibly carcinogenic to humans because of evidence of carcinogenicity in animals. According to the EPA, long-term consumption of water that contains haloacetic acid concentrations in excess of the legal limit of 60 parts per billion is associated with an increased risk of cancer.158 A technical bulletin released by the Oregon Department of Human Services in 2004 warned that long-term exposure to haloacetic acids at or above 60 parts per billion may cause injury to the brain, nerves, liver, kidneys, eyes, and reproductive systems. Acetic acid when combined with pine terpenes gives camphor, which can be extremely toxic to the chemically sensitive; add chlorine to it and one can have a brew that will be extremely toxic, yet no one makes a supreme effort to eliminate it at its source.
Haloacetic Acids
Published in Pradyot Patnaik, Handbook of Environmental Analysis, 2017
Haloacetic acids are an important class of disinfection by-products that have been linked to bladder, kidney, and rectal cancers in human. These substances are produced along with a variety of other halogenated organic compounds during chlorination of natural waters. Because of their potential health effects and widespread occurrences, these substances are regulated in drinking water in the United States. The term haloacetic acids refer to the halogenated compounds of acetic acid, CH3COOH, in which the H atom(s) of the methyl group (–CH3) are replaced by one or more Cl or Br atom(s). Some common haloacetic acids found in chlorinated water include monochloroacetic acid (MCA), ClCH2COOH; monobromoacetic acid (MBA), BrCH2COOH; dichloroacetic acid (DCA), Cl2CHCOOH; bromochloroacetic acid (BCA), BrClCHCOOH; trichloroacetic acid (TCA), Cl3CCOOH; dibromoacetic acid (DBA), Br2CHCOOH; bromodichloro acetic acid (BDCA), BrCl2CCOOH; dibromochloroacetic acid (DBCA), Br2ClCCOOH; and tribromoacetic acid (TBA), Br3CCOOH.
Challenges and Opportunities
Published in P.K. Tewari, Advanced Water Technologies, 2020
Disinfection by-products are formed when disinfectants used in water purification plants react with bromide and/or natural organic matter (i.e., decaying vegetation) present in the source water. Disinfectants produce different types or amounts of disinfection by-products. Trihalomethanes (THMs) are a group of chemicals which are formed along with other disinfection by-products when chlorine or other disinfectants react with naturally occurring organic and inorganic matter in water. Haloacetic acids are formed along with other disinfection by-products when chlorine or other disinfectants used to control microbial contaminants in drinking water react with naturally occurring organic and inorganic matter in water. The regulated haloacetic acids, known as HAA5, are: monochloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, monobromoacetic acid and dibromoacetic acid. Bromate is formed when ozone used to disinfect drinking water reacts with naturally occurring bromide found in source water. Certain minerals are radioactive and may emit a form of nuclear radiation. Some of the minerals may emit forms of radiation known as beta radiation. People who over the years consume water containing alpha emitters or beta emitters in excess of prescribed limits may be at increased risk of developing cancer. Some people who over the years consume water containing radium 226 or 228 in excess of prescribed limit may also have an increased risk of developing cancer. Drinking water containing arsenic in excess of the standard limits may cause skin damage or problems in the long term, and may increase the risk of cancer. People consuming water containing fluoride levels over the prescribed limit may develop dental fluorosis. Higher fluoride content in water may also cause bone disease, including pain and tenderness.
Chlorine and ozone disinfection and disinfection byproducts in postharvest food processing facilities: A review
Published in Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2022
Adam M.-A. Simpson, William A. Mitch
Starting in the early 1900s, chlorinating potable water supplies dramatically reduced the incidence of waterborne diseases, such as cholera, listeria, and typhoid (Li & Mitch, 2018). However, in the 1970s, analytical chemists discovered trihalomethanes (THMs) at concentrations of up to 160 µg/L as byproducts of chlorine reactions with natural organic matter (NOM) in drinking water (Li & Mitch, 2018; Rook, 1974). Shortly thereafter, toxicologists and epidemiologists discovered an association between water chlorination and bladder cancer occurrence, with halogenated byproducts suspected to drive the risk (Li & Mitch, 2018). The US EPA has regulatory limits on only 11 DBPs in drinking water: ≤ 80 µg/L for the sum of 4 trihalomethanes (THMs; chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform), ≤60 µg/L for the sum of 5 haloacetic acids (HAAs; chloroacetic acid, bromoacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, dibromoacetic acid, and trichloroacetic acid), ≤ 1 mg/L chlorite and ≤ 10 µg/L bromate (USEPA, 2020). California has a 0.8 mg/L Notification Level for chlorate, (California Water Boards, 2020) and a 6 µg/L Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for perchlorate in drinking water (California Water Boards, 2007). Much of the research related to DBPs associated with chlorine sanitization of food in postharvest washing facilities has focused on the same small molecule DBPs that have been the focus of drinking water research.
Predicting unregulated disinfection by-products in water distribution networks using generalized regression neural networks
Published in Urban Water Journal, 2021
Haroon R. Mian, Guangji Hu, Kasun Hewage, Manuel J. Rodriguez, Rehan Sadiq
Pathogenic contamination can be minimized by employing reliable disinfection practices. However, disinfection agents (e.g. chlorine, ozone, and chloramine) react with natural organic matter and other organic and inorganic compounds to form disinfection by-products (DBPs). Undesirable formation of DBPs in drinking water has been recognized as one of the critical water quality failures (Mian et al. 2021). DBPs in water have been under investigation for more than four decades. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has regulated some DBPs, such as trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), bromate, and chlorite, in the primary water quality standard due to their high occurrence in drinking water and potential human health effects (e.g. increased risk of cancer) (Richardson et al. 2007). These DBPs are commonly known as regulated DBPs (R-DBPs) (Mian et al. 2018b).
SWM and urban water: Smart management for an absurd system?
Published in Water International, 2020
With the resolution of the acute health risk posed by bacteria, scientific research began to identify chronic human health risks from drinking water. For instance, when chlorine comes into contact with organic materials in untreated water, by-products form, and these hold the potential for increased risk of cancer. These disinfection by-products, such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), can be reduced by modifying the purification process to delay the application of chlorine until after filtration. These modifications and others continue today to reduce the risks of chronic disease from long-term exposure to drinking water from municipal water purification plants. The ability to detect and monitor contaminants in drinking water has led to the standardization of allowable limits of contaminant concentrations. The World Health Organization (2017) lists approximately 90 constituents of potential concern in drinking water, some with allowable limits in the parts per billion.