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Nanoscience of Large Immune Proteins
Published in Klaus D. Sattler, st Century Nanoscience – A Handbook, 2020
Alexey Ferapontov, Kristian Juul-Madsen, Thomas Vorup-Jensen
As suggested by the name, the adaptive immunity response is formed specifically to target molecules that have microbes intruding or, for the matter, any chemical structure not being an endogenous product of the body. The cellular basis of these mechanisms is the lymphocytic compartment of the immune system, namely B and T lymphocytes. Both cell types express receptors for recognising foreign substances, here referred to as antigens. The gene loci responsible for encoding the antigen-recognising part of these receptors undergo so-called somatic recombination in a quasi-random way, which enables the encoding of a very large number of antigen receptors. Each lymphocyte carries only one type of antigen receptor. Those cells successfully recognizing a non-self antigen are then subsequently expanded to produce a number of cells with identical antigen-recognizing properties sufficient for an effective immune response toward the carriers, e.g., microbes, of that antigen. By prior selection, in particular the T lymphocytes are prevented from reacting with self-antigens, which otherwise would cause autoimmune disease, as is nevertheless sometimes encountered in patients. The selection process of B lymphocytes is less clearly understood. However, a major role of B lymphocytes is the differentiation to plasma cells, which, in turn, are cellular “factories” of antibodies. For many antigens, albeit not all, such differentiation requires the help of T lymphocytes, which, in principle, would limit antibody development to only non-self antigens. Unlike the innate immune response, adaptive immune response contains a memory of past exposures in the form of certain lymphocyte subsets. Upon reexposure to the same antigen, these cellular compartments will rapidly enable once again a cellular response and formation of antibodies to the incoming threat.
Scheduling batch processing machine problem with non-identical job sizes via artificial immune system
Published in Journal of Industrial and Production Engineering, 2018
Our immunoglobulin-based AIS algorithm is inspired by the nature immune system. Human protect themselves from attack by harmful organisms under the help of immune system. Antibodies will be produced from the B cells of the immune system to bind pathogens called antigens which have invaded human body. After binding, the pathogens are disabled by antibody and destroyed easily by the immune system. And if antibodies have complementary shapes, it will have more powerful ability to bind antigens, so the diversity of the immunoglobulin is a key point to bind the antigen, and there are three parts of diversity: somatic recombination, somatic hypermutation, and isotype switching. In humans, the immunoglobulin genes can be formulated into antibodies by three chromosomal combinations. To express the diversity of the immune system, the process of somatic recombination is generated in the immune system where different combinations of genes encode different pure antibodies, called IgM. IgM’s gene will be changed through somatic hypermutation if B cells encounter with antigen. And the somatic hypermutation occurs more frequently than other mutations for a gene. At last, an isotype switching is used to make the antibody more powerful to bind antigen.