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Health Aspects of Using Reclaimed Water in Engineering Projects
Published in Donald R. Rowe, Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid, Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse, 2020
Donald R. Rowe, Isam Mohammed Abdel-Magid
Many of the helminths that can initiate diseases in man and animal are found in wastewater. Helminths may be divided into two main groups, roundworms or nematodes and flatworms. The flatworms are further subdivided into tapeworms or cestodes, and flukes or trematodes. The tapeworms are segmented while the flukes have flat unsegmented bodies. The route of transmission of flukes is normally via the eggs (ova), which may be deposited in the soil, water, or on vegetables, and transferred to the victim by either direct or indirect means. The ova, or sometimes the larvae, are generally discharged with feces. Exceptions to this pattern are the eggs of Schistosoma haematobium (the agent of urinary schistosomiasis), which are discharged with urine, and the eggs of guineaworm, which are released through the ruptured skin of the infected individuals. The eggs can survive for prolonged periods of time. Many types of parasitic worms may infect the intestine of man and, with time and repeated infections, can result in impaired function of the intestines and other organs in the body.8
Reducing risk from wastewater use in urban farming – A case study of Accra, Ghana
Published in Blanca Jiménez, Joan Rose, Urban Water Security: Managing Risks, 2009
Pay Drechsel, Liqa Raschid-Sally, Robert Abaidoo
Epidemiological surveys for health risk assessment for farmers are ongoing in the city of Tamale, Ghana, where farmers use wastewater for vegetable cultivation and fecal sludge for cereals. Stool samples are being tested for helminth ova and fecal coliforms. The large number of confounding factors makes comprehensive assessment of the risks for consumers very difficult. However, QMRA estimates are available for farmers and consumers, based on the pathogen density in wastewater and irrigated vegetables. The annual risks of infections associated with diluted wastewater reuse, for farmers and consumers, were 10−3 to 10−4 for Ascaris, and 10−2 for Rotavirus, compared to the WHO tolerable health risk of 10−4 per person per year for the two pathogens. For fecal sludge reuse, farmers’ risk of Ascaris infection ranged from 10−2 to 10−4 while it was negligible for rotavirus infections due to fecal sludge treatment (Seidu et al., 2008a).
Human health and safety related to urban aquatic habitats
Published in Iwona Wagner, Jiri Marsalek, Pascal Breil, Aquatic Habitats in Sustainable Urban Water Management, 2014
More than 120 different types of viruses can be excreted in faeces; the most common of which are enteroviruses, rotaviruses, enteric adenovirus and the human calicivirus group (noroviruses). Hepatitis A is also a pathogenic virus of great concern, which is related to water- and food-borne outbreaks. Among bacteria, Salmonella, Campylobacter and Enterohaemorrhagic E.coli (EHEC) are particularly important in developed countries. In areas with insufficient sanitation and sewage treatment, typhoid fever (Salmonella typhi), cholera (Vibrio cholerae) and Shigella are also common. The parasitic protozoa, Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia, which originate very often from domestic livestock and cattle in particular, have caused some significant disease outbreaks in developed countries (Hunter and Thompson, 2005). They are highly resistant to disinfection and have to be controlled preferably by prevention of surface contamination by runoff from farms and pastures. Risk control is based on the multi-barrier principle: maintaining good quality raw water source and treating the raw water by processes, which should include optimized chemical coagulation, clarification, sand filtration and disinfection (Betancourt and Rose, 2004). In developing countries, helminth infections are very common. Millions of people suffer from Ascaris, Hookworm, Schistosoma haematobium, S. japonicum and S. mansoni. Urine, on the contrary, is practically free of harmful micro-organisms before becoming contaminated by faecal matter. The pathogens known to be excreted in urine are Leptospira interrogans, some forms of Salmonella and Schistosoma haematobium.
Human and livestock pathogens and their control during composting
Published in Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 2022
Soil-transmitted helminths infect 2 billion people worldwide, including significant numbers in South-East Asia. In countries where helminths are endemic, infected people can carry as many as 7.5 worms (Irwin et al., 2017). However, infected persons in modern developed countries with high quality sanitation tend to carry the fewest required to sustain shedding, with a prevalence of infection of 0.02% of the population (O’Connor et al., 2017). Ascaris eggs are often used as a surrogate to demonstrate the inactivation of helminths during composting because of their resistance to environmental factors (Collick et al., 2007; Manga et al., 2016). In this review, we also examine the inactivation of tapeworm Taenia saginata (cysticercus bovis), hookworm Necator americanus, and roundworm Ancylostoma duodenale (Jones & Martin, 2003).
Estimation of involuntary excreta ingestion rates in farmers during agricultural practices in Vietnam
Published in Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 2019
Tu Van Vu, Phuc Duc Pham, Mirko S. Winkler, Christian Zurbrügg, Jakob Zinsstag, Bich Huu Tran, Hung Nguyen-Viet
One significant human health risk is soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections (Lam et al.2015). In 2010, it was estimated globally that 438.9 million people were infected with hookworm, 819 million with Ascaris lumbricoides, and 464.6 million with Trichuris Trichiura (Pullan et al.2014). Rates of STH infection in Vietnam are considered moderate, with the prevalence estimated at 28.6%, 44.4%, and 23.1% for hookworm, A. lumbricoides, and T. trichiura, respectively (Van Der Hoek et al.2003). Main risk factors of STH in Vietnam include the use of excreta in vegetable cultivation (Van Der Hoek et al.2003), and living in a household without a latrine (Do et al.2007). While a considerable body of evidence exists on STH infection associated with excreta use, little is known about people exposed to excreta while handling excreta to apply it as crop fertilizer relating to the transmission of helminth infections, in particular A. lumbricoides.