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When the Computer First Meets the Mind
Published in Alessio Plebe, Pietro Perconti, The Future of the Artificial Mind, 2021
Alessio Plebe, Pietro Perconti
The first functioning computer program demonstrating some form of intelligence did not converse and, therefore, was not a candidate for the Turing test. It rather followed the tradition from which the Turing machine was born, as addressed in §2.1.1: logic. The program named Logic Theory Machine – often called Logic Theorist – was developed by Newell et al. (1957). The ambition of the program was to grasp some of the peaks of human thought, demonstrating theorems of Principia Mathematica (Whitehead and Russell, 1913), the bible of logic at that time. The Logic Theorist succeeded in demonstrating thirty-eight of the theorems, starting from the five axioms and three rules of inference in Principia Mathematica. It even proved one of the theorems with a shorter and more elegant solution than that given by the original authors; Simon conveyed this news to Russell who responded with delight (McCorduck, 1979, p.167). The possibility of a computer demonstrating theorems of Principia Mathematica was already conjectured ten years earlier by Turing (1948 a), who didn’t attempt to write such a program.
Introduction to Artificial Intelligence
Published in Richard E. Neapolitan, Xia Jiang, Artificial Intelligence, 2018
Richard E. Neapolitan, Xia Jiang
Most of the early successes of AI were based on modeling human logic. In 1955−1956 Allen Newell and Herbert Simon developed a program called the Logic Theorist that was intended to mimic the problem-solving skills of a human being and is considered the first artificial intelligence program. It was able to prove 38 of the first 52 theorems in Whitehead and Russell’s Principia Mathematica, and find shorter proofs for some of them [McCorduck, 2004]. In 1961, Newell and Simon forwarded the General Problem Solver(GPS), which was a program intended to work as a universal problem solver machine. Its reasoning was based on means-end analysis and the way humans handled goals and sub goals while solving a problem. GPS was able to solve simple problems like the Towers of Hanoi, but did not scale up owing to combinatorial explosion. In 1959, Gelernter developed the Geometry Theorem Prover [Gelernter, 1959], which was able to prove theorems in elementary Euclidean plane geometry.
Introduction to Expert Systems
Published in Chris Nikolopoulos, Expert Systems, 1997
As early as 1956, Newell, Shaw and Simon, [14], built an automated proof system for propositional logic. The Logic Theorist, as they called it, was able to prove many of the theorems in Whitehead and Russell's Principia Mathematica. Logic Theorist assumed five axioms and used the following techniques to prove a propositional logic formula: To show P, find an axiom or theorem of the form A⇒P and try to show A,To show A⇒P, find an axiom or theorem of the form A⇒B and show B⇒P (forward chaining),To show A⇒P, find an axiom or theorem of the form B⇒P and show A⇒B (backward chaining).
Exploring question generation in medical intelligent system using entailment
Published in International Journal of Computers and Applications, 2023
Aarthi Paramasivam, S. Jaya Nirmala
Artificial Intelligence(AI) is a wide-ranging branch of computer science, which refers to the computer and machine that mimic humankind's problem-solving and decision-making capabilities. By incorporating AI-driven tools into people's daily activities, AI has changed the world and their lives. The best example of communicating with AI-driven technologies is a simple Google search, or a chatbot of the website visited. AI is not something new. The first AI program was recognized as Logic Theorist, a system developed by Simon and Newell in 1956 [1]. AI faded from view due to the lack of computer storage, sparse data, and processing power constraints. However, in today's digital age, where we've progressed in both computing technology and software, as well as access to vast amounts of data, AI has resurfaced.
Artificially Intelligent, Interactive, and Assistive Machines: A Definitional Framework for Intelligent Assistants
Published in International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 2023
While early developments in creating intelligent machines were a product of war, utilitarian motivations concerning reducing human cognitive efforts and increasing performance as well as intellectual excitement continued generating interest in machines which could do tasks that were normally done by humans (Solomonoff, 1966). These factors led achieve these goals, scientists to develop algorithms which could model aspects of human intelligence. One of the earliest attempts to write computer programs that could logically solve problems came from the work of Newell and Simon called the Logic Theorist (1956). Although the Logic Theorist was not explicitly labelled an AI program, the goal was to develop a code that could reason and solve problems And thus, able to solve mathematical theorems from the Principia Mathematica written by Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead using logical protocols.