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Models and Paradigms for Assessment of Antidepressant Effects
Published in Scott Mendelson, Herbal Treatment of Major Depression, 2019
One of the primary methods of screening for antidepressant activity is the forced swim test. This method was first described by Porsolt et al. in 1977.24 The original method was described thus: …mice were dropped into the cylinder (height 25 cm, diameter 10 cm, 6 cm of water at 21–23°C) and left for 6 min. Because little immobility is observed during first 2 min, only that occurring during the last 4 min was counted. The duration of immobility occurring in each minute was scored. A mouse was judged to be immobile when it ceased struggling and remained floating motionless in the water making only movements necessary to keep its head above water.
DSM 5 SUD Criterion 11 Withdrawal
Published in Joan Ifland, Marianne T. Marcus, Harry G. Preuss, Processed Food Addiction: Foundations, Assessment, and Recovery, 2017
Joan Ifland, H. Theresa Wright
Depression during withdrawal from a sugar/fat combination has been shown in a rat study. It was found that rats withdrawn from a highly palatable diet showed increased immobility time in the forced swim test, which is considered to be a demonstration of depression (Iemolo et al., 2012).
Animal Models of Subtypes of Depression
Published in Siegfried Kasper, Johan A. den Boer, J. M. Ad Sitsen, Handbook of Depression and Anxiety, 2003
Paul Willner, Paul J. Mitchell
Effective treatments include TCAs, MAOIs, most atypical antidepressants, the selective NA reuptake inhibitor, reboxetine [54], 5HT1A, 5H1B, and 5HT2C-receptor agonists [207,59], extracts of St. John’s wort (hypericum perforatum) [43], ECS, and REM sleep deprivation [224,228,33]. The test is not usually sensitive to SSRIs [32,33,55], although activity of these compounds has sometimes been reported, and this appears to reflect a subtle technical change, an increase in the water depth [59,272]. There have also been a variety of other negative reports; nevertheless, some 90% of clinically active antidepressants are active in the forced-swim test, with the proportion rising in studies using chronic drug treatment [33,228]. It has been suggested that both serotonergic and noradrenergic systems may be involved in mediating antidepressant-induced reductions in immobility; serotonergic-mediated effects result from increased swimming time while noradrenergic-mediated effects reflect increased climbing behavior [69].
Genes involved in glucocorticoid receptor signalling affect susceptibility to mood disorders
Published in The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 2021
Dawid Szczepankiewicz, Beata Narożna, Piotr Celichowski, Kosma Sakrajda, Paweł Kołodziejski, Ewa Banach, Przemysław Zakowicz, Ewa Pruszyńska-Oszmałek, Joanna Pawlak, Monika Wiłkość, Monika Dmitrzak-Węglarz, Maria Skibińska, Alicja Bejger, Joanna Twarowska-Hauser, Janusz K. Rybakowski, Leszek Nogowski, Aleksandra Szczepankiewicz
To assess the presence of depressive-like behaviour in animals undergoing chronic mild stress, we used two behavioural tests, forced swim test (FST) and open-field test (OFT) performed during the light phase between 9 and 11 a.m. Forced swim test was performed to measure despair behaviour and the hopelessness in the animal (Porsolt et al. 1977; Willner et al. 2015). Briefly, each rat was placed in a glass cylinder 40 cm tall filled with water to a depth of 30 cm (24 ± 1 °C) so the rats could not support themselves by touching the bottom. Two swimming sessions were conducted: a 15 min pre-test followed by a 5 min test 24 h later. For each animal, we recorded time spent immobilised and active climbing time. The data were analysed using a video tracking system (Videomot2, AnimaLab, Poland). The water in the cylinders was replaced after each trial to remove urine or faeces and to avoid confounding results.
A novel stress re-stress model: modification of re-stressor cue induces long-lasting post-traumatic stress disorder-like symptoms in rats
Published in International Journal of Neuroscience, 2020
Santosh Kumar Prajapati, Neha Singh, Debapriya Garabadu, Sairam Krishnamurthy
SRS model also has some limitations as there are no measures of fear responses which are considered to be responsible for the development of most of the symptoms. Further, forced-swim paradigm can interfere with the results of the depressive-like behavior as animals are weekly exposed to forced swim test (FST) as a re-stress cue. Furthermore, treatment with paroxetine did not modulate FST-induced decrease in plasma corticosterone (CORT) level, suggesting a lack of predictive validity related to HPA dysfunction [7]. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a suitable model which mimics most of the clinical symptoms of PTSD. Recently, Guo et al. [23] reported that inescapable foot shock (FS) (0.8 mA, 10 sec) develops long-lasting manifestations of anxiety as well as depression-like behavior even after four weeks to the initial exposure in rats [23]. The exposure of FS also induces freezing response which is reliable to measure contextual fear response and intrusive memory [24]. The neuronal mechanism underlying fear conditioning is also involved in the development of intrusive memory [25]. Enhanced freezing behavior is considered as an indicator for formation of intrusive response [26]. Reports suggest that inescapable FS exposure of 0.5 mA for 5 sec exhibit long-lasting cognitive dysfunction [27], and 1 mA for 1 sec pulse per 60 sec affects different brain regions such as locus coeruleus, ventral tegmental area and medial prefrontal cortex and leads to HPA-axis dysfunction [28].
A novel adolescent chronic social defeat model: reverse-Resident-Intruder Paradigm (rRIP) in male rats
Published in Stress, 2018
Kevin M. Manz, Wendy A. Levine, Joshua C. Seckler, Anthony N. Iskander, Christian G. Reich
A subset of rats underwent a forced swim test (FST) to assess depressive-like behavior. The FST consists of two testing days, however, only the time spent immobile on Day 2 is inferred as a behavioral indicator of despair, whereby the urge to escape threatening stimuli is diminished (Yan et al., 2010). Twenty-four hours following CSDS, rats were placed singly inside a plastic cylinder (r = 30.5 cm; h = 46.0 cm) with 3.0 L of water at room temperature (18–22 °C) for 15 min. The procedure was repeated the following day for 5 min. Immobility, defined as the time spent motionless at the surface of the water (i.e., absent submerged limb movement), was recorded for each rat via Zeiss (ZSD-808) Stopwatches. Increased immobility is interpreted as a depressive-like phenotype in rats and immobility can be reduced via antidepressant (SSRI) administration (Yan et al., 2010). Mean ± SEM immobile time during Day 2 (in 5 min) was calculated for each group.