What is the self?
Tamara Ownsworth in Self-Identity after Brain Injury, 2014
Social psychology perspectives on self highlight the role of social processes such as self-categorisation and social comparison in shaping self-concept. According to social identity theory (Hogg & Abrams, 1988; Jetten et al., 2012; Tajfel & Turner, 1979), our social identity forms from the knowledge that we belong to a social group or category. People strive to establish and maintain a positive sense of self by differentiating their own group from others. Two key processes are involved in forming one's social identity: self-categorisation, which involves evaluating one's own characteristics on the basis of perceived similarities or differences with others, and social comparison, or selectively focusing on personal attributes that are favourable or unfavourable in relation to others (Stets & Burke, 2000). A downward social comparison involves the tendency to perceive one's self as better off than those less fortunate. An upward social comparison involves the tendency to identify one's self more closely with others who are deemed to have more positive qualities or social advantages (Suls, Martin, & Wheeler, 2002). People form broad cognitive representations on the basis of the perceived characteristics of one's own group (i.e., self-stereotyping) and those of other groups.
Social Psychology
Mohamed Ahmed Abd El-Hay in Understanding Psychology for Medicine and Nursing, 2019
Self-esteem refers to the value one places on one’s self (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003). People with high esteem think more favorably of themselves, and people with low esteem think less favorably. According to Tesser’s self-evaluation maintenance model, people maintain or enhance their self-esteem through comparison and reflection processes (Tesser, Millar, & Moore, 1988). Comparing ourselves to others helps to understand our strengths and weaknesses. Social comparisons also influence self-esteem; comparison with others who are more capable (upward social comparison) tends to decline esteem, while comparison with others who are less capable (downward social comparison) tends to increase esteem.
Using body image to help men manage weight problems
Alan White, Maggie Pettifer in Hazardous Waist, 2018
A similar point is captured by psychological perspectives. Social Comparison Theory (e.g. Brown et al., 1992), for example, highlights the role of peer-group comparisons in establishing and maintaining positive self-identity. When body becomes a legitimate basis for social comparison, the psychological pressure to adhere to physical ideals is heightened and the consequences of failure magnified, resulting in greater levels of body dissatisfaction among those to whom it is relevant, such as many men.
Understanding the psychosocial impact of joint hypermobility syndrome and Ehlers–Danlos syndrome hypermobility type: a qualitative interview study
Published in Disability and Rehabilitation, 2021
Sarah E. Bennett, Nicola Walsh, Timothy Moss, Shea Palmer
Building social networks and social support were also cited as useful coping strategies by participants, including joining support groups and making friends with others who had JHS/EDS-HT. Online and face-to-face support communities play an important role for those with chronic diseases in conveying information, gaining emotional support, and comparing experiences [77,78]. Social comparison theory may be useful in understanding how these comparisons influence quality of life. Downward social comparison, the comparison of the self to someone doing less well, has been associated with improved quality of life [79], and can be used to enhance positive affect [80]. By gaining knowledge about their condition, participants were able to foster a sense of control, and lessen the feelings of “unknown” and fear that can be present in unpredictable conditions [75,81].
Adjusting to living with Parkinson’s disease; a meta-ethnography of qualitative research
Published in Disability and Rehabilitation, 2022
Gina Wieringa, Maria Dale, Fiona J. R. Eccles
The ability to make both upward and downward positive social comparisons seemed to be important in helping individuals with PD to achieve a positive mindset. Self-help support groups were one environment whereby individuals had the opportunity to make social comparisons [35,42,44]. Members of self-help groups were able to utilize the experience of peers to make a positive downward social comparison and reflect on their relatively good fortune [44,46]. Downward social comparisons were reflected in statements such as “There is always someone worse off than me” [46]. For many, reflecting on the worse situation of others could help to keep their own situation in perspective and facilitate emotional coping [38]. Strengthening self-image through downward social comparisons allowed individuals to adjust to their own situation and was experienced regardless of their own degree of impairment [46,49].
Examining the impact of social media on mood and body dissatisfaction using ecological momentary assessment
Published in Journal of American College Health, 2020
Brooke L. Bennett, Brooke L. Whisenhunt, Danae L. Hudson, Allison F. Wagner, Janet D. Latner, Emily C. Stefano, Marshall T. Beauchamp
Through the self-curation of content, social media exposure may lead to an increase in social comparison. In fact, social comparison has been suggested to be a primary component of social media.10 Social media makes in-person social comparison and peer competition possible in a digital format, as individuals participating in social media constantly view content produced by their peers. There is a high frequency of appearance-focused images produced and shared online, allowing for previously in-person peer comparison of body and appearance-related concepts to occur in the ever-present social media platform. Previous research has confirmed that peer and parental pressure for thinness are predictors for body dissatisfaction.11 Additional research identified impacts of both upward and downward social comparison. Upward social comparison is comparing oneself to others considered superior which generally results in lower self-regard12 while downward social comparison is comparing oneself to others considered to be worse off in order to elevate self-regard.12 Upward physical comparison predicted lower evaluations of appearance and higher endorsement of characteristics of eating disorders while downward physical comparison predicted higher evaluations of appearance and greater anti-fat attitudes.13 Additionally, peer competition has been found to predict body dissatisfaction in a sample of adolescent women,7 and peer competition has been labeled as one of the two primary causes of body dissatisfaction.14 Therefore, it is reasonable to hypothesize that the harms associated with social comparison and peer competition may also be associated with social media.
Related Knowledge Centers
- Cognitive Dissonance
- Distributive Justice
- Social Cognitive Theory
- Social Psychology
- Self-Enhancement
- Self-Evaluation Motives
- Self-Assessment
- Self-Verification Theory
- Dual Systems Model
- Self-Concept