Developing Indigenous models of diabetes
Joanna Ziarkowska in Indigenous Bodies, Cells, and Genes, 2020
What is diabetes and what makes it so difficult to control? According to the World Health Organization, diabetes is defined as a disease that occurs either when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin or when the body cannot effectively use the insulin it produces. Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood sugar. Hyperglycaemia, or raised blood sugar, is a common effect of uncontrolled diabetes and over time leads to serious damage to many of the body’s systems, especially the nerves and blood vessels.(“Diabetes. Fact sheet”)
Diabetes Mellitus, Obesity, Lipoprotein Disorders and other Metabolic Diseases
John S. Axford, Chris A. O'Callaghan in Medicine for Finals and Beyond, 2023
Insulins may be grouped as short-acting, rapid-acting, intermediate-acting, long-acting insulin analogues or mixtures of these. Short-acting (soluble) insulins are absorbed more slowly than expected as the insulin molecules form relatively stable hexamers.Rapid-acting insulin analogues have a faster onset of action because their altered amino acid sequences reduce hexamer formation.Intermediate-acting insulins have a slower absorption into the bloodstream due to the addition of a protein and/or zinc; the protein protamine is commonly used.Long-acting (basal) insulin analogues have a prolonged duration of action due to factors that further slow the absorption from the injection site.
The patient with acute endocrine problems
Peate Ian, Dutton Helen in Acute Nursing Care, 2020
The specialised cells in the islet of Langerhans secret hormones which are finely balanced through sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation to prevent the development of endocrine disorders (Waugh and Grant 2018; VanMeter and Hubert 2014). The opposing actions of glucagon and insulin regulate the blood glucose level, with glucagon raising the blood glucose level while insulin lowers the blood glucose level (Table 11.2). Insulin performs many important functions, including facilitating the transport of glucose into cells and promoting glycogen storage in the liver and muscles by activating enzymes to enable the storage of glucose. The cells preferentially use glucose for energy, facilitated by insulin. The presence of the insulin inhibits fat metabolism while glucose is utilised. In the absence of insulin (either due to low glucose levels or inadequate circulating levels of insulin), fat metabolism is increased, and free fatty acids are released into the circulation. These are used as an alternative energy source, as the cells are unable to take up glucose due to the lack of insulin. It is this mechanism that accounts for the weight loss exhibited by newly diagnosed patients with type 1 diabetes. Insulin also promotes protein deposition in cells and tissue growth – a lack of insulin will also lead to protein being used as alternative energy by cells. It is the utilisation by the cells of amino acids (protein) and free fatty acids that results in ketoacidosis.
The use of combined high-fructose diet and glyphosate to model rats type 2 diabetes symptomatology
Published in Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods, 2021
Oluwafemi Ezekiel Kale, Mary Vongdip, Temitope Funmi Ogundare, Odutola Osilesi
Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood sugar (Wong et al. 2016). IR is a rate-limiting step in T2D formation and seems to play a critical role (Mattson et al. 2017). Previous studies have shown that organophosphate pesticides induce IR by inhibiting glucose transport in the body via alterations in the insulin signaling pathway (Lasram et al. 2014; Mesnage et al. 2015; Yang et al. 2020). In respect, IR would result in a situation where insulin cannot work properly and blood glucose levels keep rising thereby providing positive feedback for more insulin to be released (Leibiger et al. 2002; Lasram et al. 2014). Observations have been made on the severe metabolic disturbance and stress induced by GP in rodents (Myers et al. 2016; de Souza et al. 2019; Owagboriaye et al. 2019). In our results, insulin levels were elevated both in the FRC alone and in FRC-GP treated rats. These agree with Lasram et al. (2014) and Tizhe et al. (2018) where hyperglycemia occurs alongside with hyperinsulinaemia following GP gavage. This further explains why herbicides may be implicated as major contributors to the risk factors of T2D. Several studies on the endocrine effects of GP uses have also been reported to be associated with neurodevelopmental and reproductive function abnormalities in both humans and animals (Mesnage et al. 2015; Myers et al. 2016; EFSA 2017; Nardi et al. 2017; Manservisi et al. 2019; Agostini et al. 2020; Yang et al. 2020).
Brain insulin resistance: role in neurodegenerative disease and potential for targeting
Published in Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs, 2020
Insulin is well known as a hormone that regulated blood glucose levels. However, insulin plays a lot more roles in physiology. It is a key growth factor that regulates cell energy utilization, and the uptake of glucose from the blood is part of that role. Insulin can activate cell growth, cell repair, gene expression, mitochondrial activity and energy utilization, autophagy and protein synthesis. The insulin receptor activates key second messenger cascades that activate kinases including phosphoinositide 3 kinase (PI3 k), protein kinase B Akt/PKB, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ/δ, mammalian target or rapamycin (mTOR), and activate transcription factors such as nuclear respiratory factor 1/2 (NRF1 and NRF2). This promotes cell metabolism, mitogenesis, glucose utilization, synaptic activity, gene expression that can deal with oxidative stress, and all genes required for cell growth and repair [38–44], see Figure 1 for details. Insulin crosses the BBB [45] and the insulin receptor is expressed on neurons [38,41,46,47].
Concurrent low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet with/without physical activity does not improve glycaemic control in type 2 diabetics
Published in South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2021
Gerrit J Breukelman, Albertus K Basson, Trayana G Djarova, Cornelia J Du Preez, Ina Shaw, Heidi Malan, Brandon S Shaw
Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a global health problem of pandemic proportions and currently affects more than 171 million people.1 Those with the condition are characterised as being insulin resistant with an inadequate insulin response to maintain a normal concentration of glucose in the blood.2 It is estimated that type 2 diabetes mellitus accounts for 90–95% of all diabetic conditions.3 Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood glucose levels in the body and controls glucose entry into the body’s tissue cells.4 Following a meal, blood glucose levels rise while insulin activates an intracellular signal, leading to the translocation of glucose from intracellular compartments to the cell surface. This then, in turn, results in glucose uptake and normalisation of the blood glucose levels5 due to a glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4), a protein that is found primarily in adipose tissue and striated muscle.6 In type 2 diabetics, when an individual’s blood glucose levels are high, GLUT4 is released in a non-stimulated state, which prevents the protein from reaching the surface of the cells and affects the transport of glucose into muscle and fat cells. This causes glucose to remain in a state that cannot be used by the body for energy and other processes.5
Related Knowledge Centers
- Diabetes
- Hyperglycemia
- Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State
- Type 1 Diabetes
- Type 2 Diabetes
- Insulin
- Medication
- Pharmacy
- Gestational Diabetes
- Diabetic Ketoacidosis