Spirulina
Linda M. Castell, Samantha J. Stear (Nottingham), Louise M. Burke in Nutritional Supplements in Sport, Exercise and Health, 2015
Spirulina is a microalgae belonging to the cyanobacteria class, with nutritional supplements (tablets, flakes and powders) typically being produced from the cultivation of two species Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima. Although spirulina’s taste can prevent it from becoming a popular stand-alone food item, it is now being incorporated into more everyday products, such as desserts, corn chips, soups, salad dressings, confectionary and even beer (Small, 2011). Several cookbooks specifically dedicated to spirulina have been published. It is also used as a feed supplement in the aquaculture, aquarium and poultry industries. Spirulina was primarily recognised as being rich in proteins, essential amino acids and essential fatty acids, but recently has attracted attention due to its content of phytochemicals with antioxidant and hypolipidemic properties (Dang and Chow, 2010).
Champion Microalgal Forms for Food and Health Applications
Gokare A. Ravishankar, Ranga Rao Ambati in Handbook of Algal Technologies and Phytochemicals, 2019
Among the commercial algal species, Spirulina has gained commercial popularity because of its ease of cultivation in raceway and photobioreactors coupled with a wide range of nutritional and health applications. Spirulina possesses high protein and vitamin content by virtue of which is used in feed and food formulations (Lu et al. 2011; Soni et al. 2017). The production of Spirulina is estimated around 8,000 metric tons per year (Vonshak et al. 2014). The major production of Spirulina has been in China followed by others in North America, India, and the Asia-Pacific region (Belay 2013). Production of Spirulina depends on various factors such as light intensity, pH, temperature, salinity, nutrients, medium composition, and mode of cultivation in raceway ponds or photobioreactors (Belay 2008). The growth rate, photosynthetic efficiency, and chlorophyll content were reduced during the peak hours of high light intensity due to photo-inhibition (Vonshak et al. 2014). The culture temperature between 35–37 oC was found to be optimum for biomass productivity while increase in temperature was observed to hinder the growth rate (Chaiklahan et al. 2007; Richmond 1988). Various cultivation techniques and adoption of adequate culture conditions have enhanced Spirulina biomass productivity through several innovative approaches (Table 5.2). One way to economically produce Spirulina biomass is by growing under outdoor conditions using natural solar radiation at ambient temperatures, with reduction in cost of cultivation set up, coupled with optimised farming practices and harvesting methods (Vonshak 1997).
Plant Source Foods
Chuong Pham-Huy, Bruno Pham Huy in Food and Lifestyle in Health and Disease, 2022
Brown algae like kelp, rockweed, mozuku, kombu, wakame, limu moui, and bladderwrack contain high levels of fucoidan, fucoxanthin, iodine, alginic acid, and omega-3 fatty acids. The brown seaweeds containing fucoidan are widely consumed as part of the normal diet in East Asia, mostly Japan, Korea, China, and Philippines (250–253, 257–259). The Japanese, in particular the Okinawans, enjoy the longest life expectancies in the world, thanks to their dietary intake of fish, seaweed (mozuku, kombu, wakame), and soy (253). Green microalgae like chlorella and green macroalgae like sea lettuce are abundant in omega-3 unsaturated fatty acids (ALA, EPA and DHA), chlorophylls, and minerals. Red macro-algae like Irish moss or carrageen moss (Chondrus crispus) and freshwater green microalgae like Haematococcus pluvialis are considered the highest sources of astaxanthin (249–250, 254, 255, 260). Spirulina, especially the variety Spirulina platensis is a blue-green filamentous microalga that became famous after it was successfully used by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) as a dietary supplement for astronauts on space missions (256). It is high in protein (up to 70%), and also contains vitamins, especially B12, vitamin D3, and provitamin A (β-carotenes), as well as minerals, especially iron. It is also rich in phenolic acids, tocopherols, and γ-linolenic acid. This alga represents an important staple diet in humans and has been used as a source of protein and vitamin supplement in humans without any significant side effects. Spirulina may improve several symptoms of hypercholesterolemia and allergic rhinitis, and may even have anticancer, antiatherogenic, antiviral, and immunomodulator properties (254, 256).
Investigation of hepatoprotective effect of some algae species on carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury in rats
Published in Archives of Physiology and Biochemistry, 2020
F. Altinok-Yipel, I. O. Tekeli, S. Y. Ozsoy, M. Guvenc, S. Sayin, M. Yipel
While the use of algae was limited to traditional household remedy, become a popular alternative treatment due to bioactive components that do not exist in terrestrial nutrients (proteins, polyphenols and polysaccharides) and pharmacologic characteristics. Chlorella (Ch) is a microalgae that contains strong antioxidant compounds (lutein, tocopherol, ascorbic acid, α- and β-carotene) and has hypoglycaemic, hypocholesterolaemic, antioxidant and immunostimulant effects (Shibata et al. 2007, Li et al. 2013, Ebrahimi-Mameghani et al. 2014). Spirulina (Sp) is a blue-green algae that have metabolic (hypolipidaemic, hypoglycaemia), antiviral, liver protective, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immune-supportive properties (Karkos et al. 2011, Mazokopakis et al. 2014). Laminaria (La) has anticancer, anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects due to fucoidan and phenolic compounds (Seok et al. 2015). Sargassum (Sa) has hypolipidemic effects and beneficial in eczema, scabies, lung diseases and renal dysfunctions due to its free radical-eliminating effect (Motshakeri et al. 2014).
Protective effect of Spirulina against cyclophosphamide-induced urotoxicity in mice
Published in Egyptian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 2018
Fatma M. Eltantawy, Mohamed A. Ali Sobh, Ahmed M. EL-Waseef, Rehab-Allah A. Ibrahim, Mohamed A.A. Saad
The positive effects of Spirulina in allergic rhinitis are based on adequate evidence but larger trials are required. It is believed that the anticancer effects of Spirulina are perhaps derived from β-carotene, a known antioxidant; however, the link between β-carotene level and carcinogenesis cannot be established as the etiology of carcinoma is frequently multifactorial [33,34] . There are some positive studies on the cholesterol-lowering effects of Spirulina but larger studies are required before any definitive conclusions can be made. Finally, there are no high-level evidence trials on the role played by Spirulina in chronic fatigue and in antiviral applications. At the moment, what the literature suggests is that Spirulina is a safe food supplement without significant side-effects but its role as a drug remains to be seen.
Antiinflammatory Activities of Curcumin and Spirulina: Focus on Their Role against COVID-19
Published in Journal of Dietary Supplements, 2023
Angelica Perna, Eleonora Hay, Carmine Sellitto, Emiliano Del Genio, Maria De Falco, Germano Guerra, Antonio De Luca, Paolo De Blasiis, Angela Lucariello
Spirulina is a genus of cyanobacteria, belonging to the Oscillatoriaceae family, consisting of filamentous cyanobacteria characterized by rectilinear cell chains enclosed in a thin sheath. It grows in salt (>30 g/l) and freshwater, in high temperature (between 35 and 37 °C) and highly alkaline conditions (pH 8.5–11.0), can be collected and processed easily and has a very high macro and micronutrient content. Three species of spirulina (Spirulina platensis, Spirulina maxima, and Spirulina fusiformis) are the most studied for their high nutritional content with therapeutic values (Deng and Chow 2010). It has achieved important acclaim in the food industry and progressively as a protein and vitamin supplement in diets. Spirulina has long been used as a dietary complement by people living in places where it can be easily found, such as near lakes (Ali and Saleh, n.d). Several animal and human clinical trials (Karkos et al., 2011; Naeini et al. 2021; Satyaraj et al. 2021) to determine its valuable effects as a supplement have been conducted over the years and have allowed it to be established that spirulina could be used as a low-cost nutritional supplement and it has no adverse health effects (Anvar and Nowruzi 2021).
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