Spirulina
Linda M. Castell, Samantha J. Stear (Nottingham), Louise M. Burke in Nutritional Supplements in Sport, Exercise and Health, 2015
Spirulina is a microalgae belonging to the cyanobacteria class, with nutritional supplements (tablets, flakes and powders) typically being produced from the cultivation of two species Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima. Although spirulina’s taste can prevent it from becoming a popular stand-alone food item, it is now being incorporated into more everyday products, such as desserts, corn chips, soups, salad dressings, confectionary and even beer (Small, 2011). Several cookbooks specifically dedicated to spirulina have been published. It is also used as a feed supplement in the aquaculture, aquarium and poultry industries. Spirulina was primarily recognised as being rich in proteins, essential amino acids and essential fatty acids, but recently has attracted attention due to its content of phytochemicals with antioxidant and hypolipidemic properties (Dang and Chow, 2010).
Global Microalgal-Based Products for Industrial Applications
Gokare A. Ravishankar, Ranga Rao Ambati in Handbook of Algal Technologies and Phytochemicals, 2019
The current food industry has led to an increase in healthier, cheaper and more economic products. The use of bioactive compounds such as pigments, proteins, carbohydrates, polyunsaturated fatty acids, etc., exhibits high functional properties, which play a major role in reducing various diseases. Algae are photosynthetic micro-organisms, found in both marine and freshwater water bodies (Duong et al. 2012). Algae are photosynthetically efficient, similar to terrestrial plants (Duong et al. 2012). Algae are also efficient in converting solar energy into biomass due to their efficient cellular structure (Quintana et al. 2011). Algae are classified into Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Bacillariophyceae and Chrysophyceae (Anemaet et al. 2010), and this classification was based on features such as pigments produced, chemical storage, photosynthetic membranes and other morphological characteristics (Hoek et al. 1995). Algae produces various bioactive compounds with high commercial value, such as proteins, lipids, fatty acids, minerals, hydrocarbons, polysaccharides, amino acids, nutrients, vitamins, etc. (Wells et al. 2016). These bioactive molecules play a major role in functional food applications for health benefits (Wells et al. 2016). A few algal species—Spirulina sp., Chlorella sp., Dunaliella salina and Haematococcus pluvialis—have received great attention as nutritional supplements (Wells et al. 2016). Algal growth, biomass yields and metabolites production vary based on growth conditions such as media, nutrients, temperature, pH, light intensity, minerals, carbon dioxide, salinity, initial density and physiology (Sarada et al. 2012). Metabolites from algae have realized applications as food, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and cosmeceutical ingredients (Cardozo et al. 2007; Liu et al. 2016; Sarada et al. 2012). This chapter provides evidence of continued importance of algae as nutritional supplements to functional food applications for health benefits. The most important algae species such as Spirulina sp. Chlorella sp., Dunaliella salina, Haematococcus pluvialis and Isochrysis glaban are discussed. Furthermore, algae-based industries and their products are provided.
Microalgae for Human Nutrition
Gokare A. Ravishankar, Ranga Rao Ambati in Handbook of Algal Technologies and Phytochemicals, 2019
Arthrospira (Spirulina) and Chlorella are the two commercially available microalgae directly sold as food supplements in the form of dry biomass without any kind of processing (Enzing et al., 2014). Arthrospira (Spirulina) is a cyanobacteria with a long history of human consumption (Borowitzka 2018). The earliest records are from Spanish sailors who found that the Aztecs harvested this alga from Lake Texcoco and used it to make a cake named Tecuilatl (García et al., 2017). Also noteworthy is the traditional production and consumption of Arthrospira (Spirulina) in the region of Lake Chad (Africa), where dihé, a natural food prepared from Spirulina, still plays an important role in local communities’ nutrition and income today (Carcea et al., 2015). In the 1960s, a renewed interest in the biochemical potential of Arthrospira (Spirulina) led to its mass production for commercial purposes that started in the late 1970s. Arthrospira ( Spirulina) is indicated as source of protein (up to 60–70% dry weight), essential amino acids, fatty acids (namely palmitic, linoleic and γ-linolenic acids), minerals, pigments (chlorophyll a, β-carotene, zeaxanthin, cryptoxanthin, c-phycocyanin and allo-phycocyanin), vitamin B12 and sulphated polysaccharides (Jara et al., 2018). It is therefore considered as a “cell factory” of health-promoting bioactive molecules (Nicoletti 2016; Mathur 2018) and is sold in supermarkets as “Spirulina” powder and indicated as a “superfood.” Its presence on the market is already generalized and accepted by consumers as an “alternative” source of vitamin B12 and proteins, particularly for non-animal-based diets such as vegetarianism. However, some studies indicate that a part of this vitamin B12 is in the form of its inactive analog, with no vitamin activity when consumed (Watanabe et al., 2002). Unexpectedly, the use of Arthrospira (Spirulina) for nutritional purposes is poorly studied. Most studies so far have focused on health-promoting effects and some are about the safety of consuming this cyanobacterium, and there is a gap in studies reporting the bioavailability of the ingested nutrients (Borowitzka 2018; Jara et al., 2018).
Spirulina platensis Provides a Small Advantage in Vertical Jump and Sprint Performance But Does Not Improve Elite Rugby Players’ Body Composition
Published in Journal of Dietary Supplements, 2021
Mehdi Chaouachi, Sandrine Gautier, Yoann Carnot, Nicolas Bideau, Pierrick Guillemot, Yann Moison, Tom Collin, Sophie Vincent, Carole Groussard
Spirulina (Arthrospira) is a blue-green microalga belonging to the Cyanobacteria class with prokaryotic photosynthetic characteristics (Deng and Chow 2010; Koncic and Tomczyk 2013; Vicat et al. 2014; Serban et al. 2016). The most well-known species of Spirulina safe for consumption are Spirulina maxima, Arthrospira fusiformis, and platensis, this last one being the most commonly used species and largely studied in the scientific literature (Thengodkar and Sivakami 2010; Serban et al. 2016). It is known for its complex chemical makeup including high protein content (50% to 70% of its dry weight), all the essential amino and fatty acids, and most of the vitamins and minerals (Khan et al. 2005; Hosseini et al. 2013; Sotiroudis and Sotiroudis 2013), which confers to Spirulina numerous health benefits such as antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and antiviral activities (Deng and Chow 2010; Hosseini et al. 2013; Wu et al. 2016).
Spirulina extract improves age-induced vascular dysfunction
Published in Pharmaceutical Biology, 2022
Michal Majewski, Mercedes Klett-Mingo, Carlos M. Verdasco-Martín, Cristina Otero, Mercedes Ferrer
Since the development of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are related to increased oxidative stress (Daiber et al. 2017; Dubois-Deruy et al. 2020), antioxidant therapies have been proposed to prevent endothelial and vascular dysfunction (Mozaffarian and Wu 2011; Villalpando et al. 2015; Rojas et al. 2020). Also, the consumption of natural products is gaining attention, especially that of microalgae. Among the microalgae, the filamentous cyanobacterium of the genus Arthrospira, with the two most common species (Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima), commercially named as Spirulina, is referred to as a ‘superfood’ with antioxidant-antihypertensive activities, insulin resistance and cholesterol/lipid-lowering effects (Hosseini et al. 2013; Vo and Kim 2013; Heo et al. 2017).
An overview on cyanobacterial blooms and toxins production: their occurrence and influencing factors
Published in Toxin Reviews, 2022
Isaac Yaw Massey, Muwaffak Al osman, Fei Yang
Anatoxin-a is a small alkaloid and potent neurotoxin promoter. It is a bicylic secondary amine, smallest cyanotoxin, and has a molecular weight of 165 Da. Osswald et al. (2007) indicated that Anabaena sp., Aphanizomenon sp., Microcystis sp., Oscillatoria sp., Arthrospira sp., Raphidiopsis sp., Planktothrix sp., Phormidium sp., Nostoc sp. and Cylindrospermum sp. are capable to produce this toxin. The amine pKa value of 9.4 renders the cationic form of anatoxin-a the most prevalent form in natural waters and its oxidation may be pH-dependent. Homoanatoxin-a with an additional methylene unit on its side chain has been identified as a variant of anatoxin-a (Skulberg et al.1992). Anatoxin-a is a potent nicotinic agonist capable of producing neuromuscular blockade leading to paralysis and eventually death owing to respiratory arrest (Fawell et al.1999, Osswald et al.2007). Although anatoxin-a is not considered widespread as the cyclic peptide hepatotoxins, it is documented to have caused animal poisonings in some parts of the world identified (Fawell et al.1993, Sivonen and Jones 1999, Svircev et al.2019). Due to the toxic consequences, Fawell et al. (1999) recommended 1 µg/L anatoxin-a concentration to provide significant water safety since no official drinking water guideline is established.
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