Anatomy & Embryology
Manit Arya, Taimur T. Shah, Jas S. Kalsi, Herman S. Fernando, Iqbal S. Shergill, Asif Muneer, Hashim U. Ahmed in MCQs for the FRCS(Urol) and Postgraduate Urology Examinations, 2020
The female reproductive tract is made up of the uterus, a pair of ovaries and fallopian tubes, and the vagina. The uterus measures roughly 8 × 6 cm and lies in front of the rectum and over the dome of the bladder. It consists of the upper fundus, middle body and lower cervix. It is anchored by the round ligament of uterus, which originates at the uterine horns, leaves the pelvis at the deep inguinal ring, passes through the inguinal canal and continues on to the labia majora where its fibres attach to the mons pubis. Each fallopian tube extends laterally from the side of the uterus at the junction between the fundus and body. There are four anatomical parts: Infundibulum – ‘Funnel shaped’ lateral end, which opens into the peritoneal cavity. Fimbriae surround the mouth of the tube to collect ova from the ovary.Ampulla – Site of fertilisation.Isthmus – Involved with the transport of gametes in both directions.Uterine – Within the wall of the uterus.
The immune system of the genitourinary tract
Phillip D. Smith, Richard S. Blumberg, Thomas T. MacDonald in Principles of Mucosal Immunology, 2020
The female reproductive tract has upper and lower components. The lower female reproductive tract structures (ectocervix, vagina, and vulva) enable sperm to enter the body and protect the internal genital organs from potential pathogens. From the vulva to the vagina, the epidermis transitions from keratinized to stratified, nonkeratinized squamous epithelium. The vaginal mucosa consists of three distinct layers; (1) the outer surface layer, which is lubricated by mucus produced primarily by the cervix; (2) the intermediate layer, which acts as an active site of glycogen production; and (3) the basal layer, made up of actively dividing cells. Internal reproductive structures include the endocervix, uterus, and fallopian tubes (see Figure 20.1, left). The ovary produces both gametes (ova) and sex hormones (estradiol and progesterone). The fallopian tubes attached to the upper part of the uterus provide passage for the ovum from the ovary to the uterus. Following fertilization of an egg by a sperm in the fallopian tubes, the fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants into the lining of the uterine wall. Each site in the female reproductive tract functions to insure passage of sperm to the site of fertilization, permit release of menstrual flow, as well as provide a route of passage of the baby at birth.
Inorganic Chemical Pollutants
William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel in Reversibility of Chronic Disease and Hypersensitivity, Volume 4, 2017
Although the TLV for mercury is 0.05 mg/m3,491 this standard may be falsely high, and it does not take into account individual susceptibility. The fact is mercury and its compounds are toxic to man. Individuals may be exposed to various sources of mercury such as mercury vapor, inorganic mercury salts, organic mercury compounds, alkyl mercury compounds, and seafood contaminated with mercury. Acute exposure to high levels of mercury compounds causes a variety of gastrointestinal symptoms and severe anuria with uremia, as well as precipitating chemical sensitivity. The clinical symptoms for chronic mercurialism involve the CNS, with tremor and various neuropsychiatric disturbances. They also involve the female reproductive system. For example, the first indicators of fetal toxicity were shown to occur when abortions were observed in women undergoing mercury treatment for syphilis.
Three-dimensional bioprinting of artificial ovaries by an extrusion-based method using gelatin-methacryloyl bioink
Published in Climacteric, 2022
T. Wu, Y. Y. Gao, J. Su, X. N. Tang, Q. Chen, L. W. Ma, J. J. Zhang, J. M. Wu, S. X. Wang
The ovary is the endocrine organ of the female reproductive system and controls follicular development and sex steroid secretion [1]. The onset of puberty, establishment of the menstrual cycle and menopausal conditions are all associated with the state of the ovary [2–4]. However, pathologies such as malignant tumor, primary ovarian diseases and autoimmune diseases can disrupt hormone secretion and follicular development [5–8]. Furthermore, iatrogenic conditions due to chemotherapy, radiotherapy and oophorectomy can also damage ovarian function to a degree, resulting in premature menstruation or amenorrhea, as well as decreased fertility [5]. Disorders of the ovary are also responsible for many mental/psychological issues and organ dysfunction, such as osteoporosis, cognitive decline and cardiovascular disease. As a means to treat these conditions, bioengineering artificial ovaries that mimic natural ovaries are of potentially far-reaching significance. Bioengineered ovaries are designed to integrate into the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovary axis and provide optimal microenvironments for follicular growth [9].
Protective mechanism of GPR30 agonist G1 against ultraviolet B-induced injury in epidermal stem cells
Published in Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology, 2019
Yaqin Zhang, Li Li, Yangchun Xu, Xiaoli Zhao, Fuqiu Li
Oestrogen is the sex hormone which regulates the function of the female reproductive system. Oestrogens are well known to regulate many genes by binding to and activating nuclear oestrogen receptors (ERα and ERβ). It is now known that oestrogens can also activate membrane-bound oestrogen receptors, including GPR30 [8]. GPR30 (also named GPER) is an orphan oestrogen receptor which only binds cell membranes but cannot directly regulate gene expression like ERα/β. Activation of GPR30 using its specific agonist G1 has been reported to participate in a diversity of biological activities. For example, administration of G1 in SD rats alleviated traumatic brain injury (TBI)-induced hippocampal neuronal apoptosis by promoting microglial polarization to the M2 phenotype and increasing the ratio of Arg1/iNOS [9]. Another study reported that using G1 noticeably reduced the increase in infarction volume, improved the neurological deficit, and ameliorated neuronal injuries induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in ovariectomized female mice [10]. G1 treatment can also improve contractile function and reduce infarct size in isolated rodent hearts in response to ischemia/reperfusion through reducing mitochondria permeability transition pore opening [11]. However, there has been little research on the physiological function of GPR30 and the possible usage of G1 in skin. Here, we investigated the expression of GPR30 and its activation in the functional regulation of murine ESCs in vitro.
Allocating Uterus Transplants—Who Gets to Be a Gestational Mother?
Published in The American Journal of Bioethics, 2018
As a form of organ transplantation, UTx is distinctive because uteruses are part of the female reproductive system. UTx is intended as a temporary solution for the purpose of allowing a woman to gestate a fetus. Most other organ transplants are intended to improve the recipient’s health more generally,1 and transplant protocols do not typically call for removal after successful live birth. It is therefore intuitively appealing to introduce reproductive and parenthood type criteria into analysis of UTx eligibility. However, it is important to not leap too quickly from uteruses to parenthood. Uteruses are essential to gestation, but that reasoning could apply to almost any organ transplant. The presence of a heart is just as essential to gestating a fetus as a uterus. Similarly, individuals on dialysis with kidney failure are unlikely to sustain a pregnancy. A kidney transplant could therefore have a similar intended outcome of enabling a woman to become a gestational parent.