Exercise, Nutrition, and Diabetes
Jeffrey I. Mechanick, Elise M. Brett in Nutritional Strategies for the Diabetic & Prediabetic Patient, 2006
For the following discussion it is necessary to define some important terms. Physical activity is any contraction by skeletal muscles that results in an energy expenditure that is greater than the resting energy expenditure. Exercise involves planned, structured, and repetitive body movements designed to improve fitness and usually occur as part of leisure activity. Aerobic exercise involves continuous, rhythmic, and repeated movements of the same large muscle groups, such as jogging, cycling, and cross-country skiing. Resistance training, such as isotonic weight training and isometrics, improves strength and muscular fitness. Endurance training involves regular aerobic exercise sessions that are frequent enough to improve cardiorespiratory fitness. Eccentric exercise, such as downhill running, downhill skiing, stretching and long jumps, involves lengthening of the muscle fibers as tension develops. Sport is a form of exercise involving a set of rules within a competitive framework and includes soccer, baseball, football, basketball, gymnastics, and track and field.
Endurance Athletes
Henry C. Lukaski in Body Composition, 2017
Endurance, compared to anaerobic (strength and power), athletes possess higher peak oxygen uptake (VO2max) and anaerobic threshold levels, and have a predominance of Type I muscle fibers. They tend to be leaner and carry less body mass. Endurance training by definition is designed to enhance the overall aerobic capacity of not only muscle cells, but also of the body as a whole. Increased ability to take in and utilize oxygen is the most essential component for improving endurance performance regardless of the endurance sport. When comparing different levels (novice, trained, well trained, elite, etc.) of endurance athletes participating in the same sport, elite athletes have more Type I muscle fibers, greater capillary density, increased aerobic enzyme activity, higher absolute VO2max values, improved economy, higher lactate thresholds, and overall superior endurance performance resulting in faster race times (Coyle 1995).
Physical and functional growth and development
Nick Draper, Helen Marshall in Exercise Physiology, 2014
To carry out research in children into the physiological effects of training for, and participating in, marathons is unethical, hence there is no literature to support, or refute, the safety of such activities. The risk of injury is directly related to the amount of time spent running, therefore, considering the hours spent training for and competing in marathons, combined with the physical changes occurring during growth, the risk of injury is likely to be high in children and adolescents. There are, however, obvious benefits of endurance training such as the reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. In the absence of scientific literature, it has been suggested that children should not be actively encouraged to participate in marathon running, and whether event organisers should allow children to compete is still an area of controversy.
Strength and endurance deficits in adults with moderate-to-severe hip osteoarthritis, compared to healthy, older adults
Published in Disability and Rehabilitation, 2022
Louise C. Burgess, Paul Taylor, Thomas W. Wainwright, Ian D. Swain
Endurance training induces central and peripheral adaptations that improve cardiovascular function and the capacity of skeletal muscles to generate energy through oxidative metabolism [60]. In both hip and knee osteoarthritis, knee extensor exercises are commonly prescribed, however, not always with the training principles required to promote endurance benefits [61]. Training with low repetitions and high resistance favours adaptions for strength, power, and hypertrophy, whereas training with high repetitions and low resistance increases muscular endurance and appears more suitable for submaximal, prolonged contractions [62]. Given the concern that high-intensity or high-load strength training may increase pain and joint stress for those with osteoarthritis [63], in addition to the function and endurance deficits observed in the present study, endurance training may be the most suitable training modality in the hip osteoarthritis population. For example, research has shown benefits of indoor cycling classes [64] and circuit-based weight training for adults with hip osteoarthritis [65]. Clinically, our findings are important to inform specific exercise prescription in physiotherapy and exercise programmes for the hip osteoarthritis population.
Factors predicting long-term physical activity of breast cancer survivors. 5-year-follow-up of the BREX exercise intervention study
Published in Acta Oncologica, 2022
Kristiina Kokkonen, Pirkko-Liisa Kellokumpu-Lehtinen, Markku Kankaanpää, Riku Nikander, Heidi Maria Penttinen, Meri Utriainen, Leena Vehmanen, Riikka Huovinen, Hannu Kautiainen, Carl Blomqvist, Tiina Saarto
After the baseline visit, the patients were randomized either into 12-month supervised exercise training group or control group. The exercise intervention consisted of both supervised and home training protocol. The supervised training was organized once a week as a 60-min endurance program and rotating between step-aerobics and a circuit-training with switch every fortnight. The intensity of exercise was assessed by a Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale, which relies on self-estimation of stress level. After the first six weeks of less intensive training, the stress level was raised toward 14–16 RPE’s [49]. This equals to exercise that feels ‘somewhat hard’ or ‘hard’ and corresponds to 5–7 metabolic equivalents (METs). A metabolic equivalent (MET) unit is the amount of oxygen consumed at rest in supine position and matches 3.5 ml oxygen consumption per kilogram each minute [50]. The home training sessions included endurance training twice-a-week. The nonsupervised endurance training consisted of walking, Nordic walking, or aerobic training. The control group was recommended to maintain their usual level of physical activity and exercise habits during the follow-up.
Effects of Protein Versus Carbohydrate Supplementation on Markers of Immune Response in Master Triathletes: A Randomized Controlled Trial
Published in Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 2019
Fernando Naclerio, Eneko Larumbe-Zabala, Marcos Seijo, Nadia Ashrafi, Birthe V. Nielsen, Conrad P. Earnest
Twenty-four recreationally master-age male triathletes, not involved in regular official federative competitions, met the requirements to participate in this study. Inclusion criteria included (a) being 35–60 years of age, (b) participating in regular endurance training history for at least 2 years with a minimum of 3 sessions and 6 hours of endurance training exposure per week, (c) having a normal health history, (d) being free from musculoskeletal limitations, (e) agreeing not to ingest any other nutritional supplements or nonprescription drugs/medications that can affect blood markers of health as well as muscle growth and the ability to train intensely during the study, and (f) fluent in English in order to receive instructions regarding the study. Participants were excluded if they presented with (a) a history of metabolic conditions and/or diseases, (b) use of a variety of medications including, but not limited to, those with androgenic and/or anabolic effects and/or nutritional supplements known to improve strength and/or muscle mass, such as creatine, essential amino acid, whey protein, glutamine, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), or multivitamin or iron supplement within 8 weeks prior to the start of the study, (c) current use of tobacco products, or (d) the presence of any soft tissue or orthopedic limitations.
Related Knowledge Centers
- Aerobic Exercise
- Anaerobic Exercise
- Endurance
- Heart Rate
- Succinate Dehydrogenase
- Circulatory System
- Myoglobin
- Cardiac Output
- Supercompensation
- Adenosine Triphosphate