Psychological Stress and Upper Respiratory Illness
Herman Friedman, Thomas W. Klein, Andrea L. Friedman in Psychoneuroimmunology, Stress, and Infection, 2020
Rhinoviruses are the most common cause of the common cold. Based on survey studies with samples collected for viral identification, rhinoviruses have been estimated to be responsible for 40 to 60% of all colds in adults. The virus can either be identified in nasal secretions from the infected individual or by the presence of specific antiviral antibodies in serum or nasal secretions following infection. More than a hundred different types of rhinoviruses (serotypes) have now been identified. Coronaviruses (3 types), which are technically more difficult to identify, have been estimated to be responsible for another 20% of colds in adults and perhaps more in children. Other viruses known to be associated with classic cold symptoms (e.g., rhinorrhea) include the influenza viruses (3 types), parainfluenza viruses (4 types), and respiratory syncytial virus; if not contained by host defense mechanisms, these viruses typically go on to cause more serious illness and associated systemic symptoms (e.g., fever).
Viral infections in lung transplantation
Wickii T. Vigneswaran, Edward R. Garrity, John A. Odell in LUNG Transplantation, 2016
The epidemiology of CARV infection in lung transplant recipients has been described in retrospective and prospective studies. Acquisition of virus can occur at any time after a transplant; cases of donor-derived influenza and adenovirus infection have been reported and caused significant morbidity in some cases. In lung transplant recipients CARV infection occurs with seasonal variability patterns similar to those of the virus circulating in the broader community. The individual episodes recorded in the literature range from cases involving asymptomatic recovery during surveillance studies to mild rhinorrhea and nasal congestion to severe lower respiratory tract symptoms resulting in respiratory failure. Although most studies have focused on single episodes, cases of persistent infection with rhinovirus lasting for up to 15 months have been reported. Recovery of CARV is highly dependent on the presence of respiratory symptoms. Virus is recovered from only 3% to 5% of asymptomatic adult lung transplant recipients, whereas 34% to 66% of symptomatic lung transplant recipients have virus recovered during an episode. In a single-center prospective single-season study, episodes of suspected CARV infection developed in two thirds of lung transplant recipients, with a virus recovered in 34% of those cases. In a year-long study from Switzerland, investigators recovered a virus in the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid of 55% of subjects, whereas in Canada 66% of subjects with clinical symptoms of CARV infection had a virus identified. However, only 21 of 80 CARV episodes in a recent cohort of lung transplant recipients were symptomatic when respiratory viral testing was included in surveillance bronchoscopy. In pediatrics, a multinational retrospective study revealed that only 13.8% of 576 subjects had a reported CARV infection within the first year after their transplant. The viruses recovered in these studies included rhinovirus, influenza, parainfluenza, RSV, human metapneumovirus, and adenovirus. Differences in the recovery rates may be related to diagnostic techniques used. Risk factor assessment for CARV reveals that younger age is associated with symptomatic CARV infection in pediatric lung transplant recipients. However, age, type of transplant, and underlying diagnoses are not specific risk factors for CARV infection in adult lung transplant recipients.
Viruses and Antiviral Agents
John C Watkinson, Raymond W Clarke, Louise Jayne Clark, Adam J Donne, R James A England, Hisham M Mehanna, Gerald William McGarry, Sean Carrie in Basic Sciences Endocrine Surgery Rhinology, 2018
Rhinoviruses (Figure 20.3) are a group of ssRNA viruses, which cause approximately half of all upper respiratory tract infections, otherwise known as the common cold. The ssRNA genome of Rhinoviruses consists of a single gene, which is then cleaved to produce message for 11 proteins. Most rhinoviruses use the receptor ICAM-1 to enter cells and others use the low density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR). A new species of rhinoviruses was recently identified (HRV-C), whose mechanism of entry remains to be identified. Rhinoviruses are transmitted through contact or aerosol, via the intra-nasal or conjunctival routes. Rhinoviruses generally do not cause much pathology in the upper respiratory tract, but do disrupt the epithelial cell barrier, allowing transmigration of bacteria and exposure of toll-like receptors. In addition, it is now understood that rhinoviruses can exacerbate asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cystic fibrosis.
Infectious pathogens and bronchiolitis outcomes
Published in Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy, 2014
Kohei Hasegawa, Jonathan M Mansbach, Carlos A Camargo
Bronchiolitis is a common early childhood illness and an important cause of morbidity, it is the number one cause of hospitalization among US infants. Bronchiolitis is also an active area of research, and recent studies have advanced our understanding of this illness. Although it has long been the conventional wisdom that the infectious etiology of bronchiolitis does not affect outcomes, a growing number of studies have linked specific pathogens of bronchiolitis (e.g., rhinovirus) to short- and long-term outcomes, such as future risk of developing asthma. The authors review the advent of molecular diagnostic techniques that have demonstrated diverse pathogens in bronchiolitis, and they review recent studies on the complex link between infectious pathogens of bronchiolitis and the development of childhood asthma.
MicroRNAs and the immune response to respiratory virus infections
Published in Expert Review of Clinical Immunology, 2014
Anna Głobińska, Małgorzata Pawełczyk, Marek L Kowalski
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small ssRNA molecules, which are involved in gene expression regulation at the post-transcriptional level. Their biological functions include modulation of both innate and adaptive immune response. miRNAs participate in the maintenance of the airway epithelial barrier and are also implicated in the modulation of antiviral defense in epithelial cells. The immune response to respiratory viruses such as rhinovirus, influenza virus and respiratory syncytial virus is associated with an altered expression of distinct miRNAs, and the changes in the miRNA expression profile in epithelial cells may contribute to the pathogenesis of both acute and chronic airway disease. Understanding the role of these small molecules in the antiviral immune response and identification of miRNAs target genes may help to clarify the mechanisms of virus-host interaction, and in the future may lead to development of new antiviral treatments.
Peptidomimetic ethyl propenoate covalent inhibitors of the enterovirus 71 3C protease: a P2–P4 study
Published in Journal of Enzyme Inhibition and Medicinal Chemistry, 2016
Melgious J. Y. Ang, Qiu Ying Lau, Fui Mee Ng, Siew Wen Then, Anders Poulsen, Yuen Kuen Cheong, Zi Xian Ngoh, Yong Wah Tan, Jianhe Peng, Thomas H. Keller, Jeffrey Hill, Justin J. H. Chu, C. S. Brian Chia
Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is a highly infectious pathogen primarily responsible for Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease, particularly among children. Currently, no approved antiviral drug has been developed against this disease. The EV71 3C protease is deemed an attractive drug target due to its crucial role in viral polyprotein processing. Rupintrivir, a peptide-based inhibitor originally developed to target the human rhinovirus 3C protease, was found to inhibit the EV71 3C protease. In this communication, we report the inhibitory activities of 30 Rupintrivir analogs against the EV71 3C protease. The most potent inhibitor, containing a P2 ring-constrained phenylalanine analog (compound 9), was found to be two-fold more potent than Rupintrivir (IC50 value 3.4 ± 0.4 versus 7.3 ± 0.8 μM). Our findings suggest that employing geometrically constrained residues in peptide-based protease inhibitors can potentially enhance their inhibitory activities.
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