Psychological approaches to understanding people
Dominic Upton in Introducing Psychology for Nurses and Healthcare Professionals, 2013
Classical conditioning (see Figure 2.2) is a process of learning whereby an initially neutral stimulus comes to elicit a particular response, as the result of being paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus. So let us break this down: The food (in the demonstration above) is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it naturally evokes an unlearned reflexive response (salivation) which is known as the unconditioned response (UCR).The sound of the laboratory assistant’s footsteps is a neutral stimulus that comes to be linked with the food when the two events repeatedly occur close together in time. Once the two events become associated with one another the footsteps become a conditioned stimulus.After satisfactory repetition this conditioned stimulus will produce a salivation response. When the salivation response is produced by the conditioned stimulus as opposed to the unconditioned stimulus, salivation becomes a conditioned response (CR).
A Biopsychosocial Approach to Anxiety
Stephen M. Stahl, Bret A. Moore in Anxiety Disorders: A Guide for Integrating Psychopharmacology and Psychotherapy, 2013
In the first half of the 20th century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov first introduced the concept of learned associations in his well-known experiments on classical conditioning. While studying digestive reflexes in dogs, Pavlov (1927) recognized that the animals responded predictably to salient cues in their environment, such as salivating at the sight of food. He also observed that the natural salivation response to food could be elicited by random stimuli that attained significance through repeated pairings with the food. Pavlov trained his research subjects to associate the sound of a bell with the presentation of food by presenting the two stimuli simultaneously or within close temporal proximity. Further, the dogs learned to associate the presentation of food with the environments in which they were experimentally trained, salivating at the mere sight of Pavlov's laboratory even in the absence of food.
ENTRIES A–Z
Philip Winn in Dictionary of Biological Psychology, 2003
Since the two types of conditioning procedure are operationally quite distinct (in classical the animal is exposed to a contingency between two stimuli; in operant the contingency is between an action and an outcome) the question arose as to whether they differed in more fundamental ways. One widely canvassed suggestion was that classical conditioning might be effective only in modifying the occurrence of simple REFLEX responses and that the modification of voluntary behaviour depended on operant conditioning processes. The distinction has proved to be untenable, however; there have been demonstrations of the operant conditioning of involuntary responses and that supposedly voluntary behaviour such as an animal shows in moving around its environment, can be susceptible to classical conditioning. The modern consensus is that both types of conditioning depend on a common ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING process, differing only in the events that enter into association: two stimuli in the case of classical conditioning, a response and a stimulus in the operant case.
Future projection therapy: Techniques and case examples
Published in American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 2022
Joseph Tramontana, Anna Sharkey, Savannah Hays
In the 1960s, behavioral therapies such as Behavior Modification became popular. Behavior therapy was based on the concepts of learning theory. The tenet is that there is the acquisition of a functional connection between an environmental stimulus and a subject’s response. In classical conditioning (Pavlovian or respondent) a stimulus elicits a response, and the subject emitting the response to the situation alters its frequency of occurrence in the future by congruity. In operant conditioning, reinforcement of the emitted response leads to learning desired responses. Skinner’s book About Behaviorism (1974) gave a good description of what was called the science of behavior. Eysenck (1960) gives a comprehensive review of behavioral approaches in treating neuroses, and Ullmann and Krasner (1966) edited a book titled Case studies in behavior modification which shows how behavioral approaches can be used to change behaviors with many other clinical issues.
Brain injury, behaviour support, and family involvement: putting the pieces together and looking forward
Published in Disability and Rehabilitation, 2020
Alinka Fisher, Michelle Bellon, Sharon Lawn, Sheila Lennon
In particular, the aforementioned reviews have highlighted the success of management approaches that are based on ABA. In simple terms, ABA refers to the application of behavioural principles from learning theory (i.e., classical [or respondent] conditioning and operant [or instrumental] conditioning) that asserts behaviour as operating on the environment and maintained by its consequences [114]. Put simply, classical conditioning refers to reflexive (unlearned) behaviours, whereas operant conditioning focuses on learned or voluntary behaviours [115]. The principles of classical conditioning has therefore informed an operant model for analysing behaviour to help identify the function it serves for the individual, and how environmental factors contribute to the development and maintenance of the behaviour [102,113]; thus, ABA interventions are based on procedures emphasising (but not restricted to) the management of BOC by manipulating antecedents (events prior to the occurrence of problem behaviour) or consequences (the response to the behaviour) [94,100].
Enhanced Interrogation: Inside the Minds and Motives of the Islamic Terrorists Trying to Destroy America
Published in Psychiatry, 2018
Mitchell reports that once the CIA “wanted me to conduct the interrogations using EITs myself … I would never again be able to work as a psychologist” (pp. 44–45). It is important to know what rationalizations he used to understand the psychological pressures that led to this tragic episode in public policy. Mitchell reminded himself that he had the skills to do enhanced interrogation techniques, and he reminded himself that the CIA was “going to get rough with Abu Zubaydah whether I helped or not” (p. 45). Mitchell used one more strategy to overcome his conscience: [M]y question concerned my ability to put together a psychologically based interrogation program that would condition Abu Zubaydah to cooperate and my ability to interrogate him using it. I knew it would have to be based on what is called Pavlovian classical conditioning …, and I was very familiar with that because my early training was as a behavioral psychologist. (p. 46)
Related Knowledge Centers
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