The control systems: nervous and endocrine
Nick Draper, Helen Marshall in Exercise Physiology, 2014
It has recently been shown that both adipose tissue (reviewed in Singla et al. 2010) and skeletal muscle (reviewed in Pedersen & Febbraio, 2008) have endocrine functions. In addition to its primary role as an energy store, adipose tissue has been found to be an important source of various hormones. Several of these hormones play important roles in weight control, such as leptin, resistin, visfatin and adiponectin. In 2005, Pedersen & Febbraio first suggested that skeletal muscle be termed an endocrine organ, due to the discovery that contracting skeletal muscle is a major source of the circulatory cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6), an intercellular signalling molecule with a role in inflammation. The term ‘myokines’ is now commonly used to refer to substances (cytokines or other peptides) released by skeletal muscle during physical activity. It is thought that some myokines work in a hormone-like fashion, exerting effects in other tissues such as adipose tissue and the liver, whereas others will work in a paracrine or autocrine manner. The discovery of myokine release during exercise contributes to our understanding of why regular physical activity is important for the protection against a range of chronic diseases.
General Nutritional Considerations for Chronic Hyperglycemia—Type 2 Diabetes
Robert Fried, Richard M. Carlton in Type 2 Diabetes, 2018
Note: Nitrotyrosine is a product of reactive nitrogen species and indicates cell damage, inflammation, and NO production. The prostaglandin 8-iso-PGF(2alpha) in urine is a reliable, noninvasive index of lipid peroxidation (Tacconelli, Capone, and Patrignani. 2010). IL-6 is an interleukin that acts as both a pro-inflammatory cytokine and an anti-inflammatory myokine. ICAM-1 plays an important role in adhesion phenomena involved in the immune response (Roy, Audette, and Tremblay. 2001).
Proactive Nutrition
Robert Fried, Lynn Nezin in Evidence-Based Proactive Nutrition to Slow Cellular Aging, 2017
Interleukin 6 acts as both a pro-inflammatory cytokine and an anti-inflammatory myokine. Cytokines are molecules that aid cell-to-cell communication in immune responses, and stimulate the movement of cells toward sites of inflammation, infection, and trauma. Myokines are small proteins produced and released by muscle cells in response to muscular contractions.
Insight into the role of myokines and myogenic regulatory factors under hypobaric hypoxia induced skeletal muscle loss
Published in Biomarkers, 2022
Sukanya Srivastava, Richa Rathor, Som Nath Singh, Geetha Suryakumar
Myostatin is known as one of the potential myokine which negatively regulated skeletal muscle mass. Most studies have indicated a higher myostatin concentration under multiple metabolic and muscular disorders (Baczek et al. 2020, Koch et al. 2020, Mariot et al.2020). In accordance with the previous literature, our results indicated enhanced levels of myostatin with progressive HH exposure, hence depicting a time-dependent muscle loss. One of the interesting studies reported the decreased levels of irisin and increased myostatin levels in male climbers in response to 2-week exposure to high altitude (Śliwicka et al. 2017). Similarly, Oguz et al. (2021) reported low levels of irisin and increased myostatin level in sarcopenic obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Therefore, the disturbed myokines profile in our study describes the adaptive mechanism of the skeletal muscles during initial exposure to HH, which under prolonged hypoxic exposure leads to increased catabolism and atrophic response due to enhanced myostatin levels.
Differences in serum IL-6 response after 1 °C rise in core body temperature in individuals with spinal cord injury and cervical spinal cord injury during local heat stress
Published in International Journal of Hyperthermia, 2018
Takamasa Hashizaki, Yukihide Nishimura, Kenzo Teramura, Yasunori Umemoto, Manabu Shibasaki, C. A. Leicht, Ken Kouda, Fumihiro Tajima
Interleukin (IL)-6 is known as an inflammatory cytokine but it also plays important roles in anti-inflammation, immune responses, and metabolic functions [4]. IL-6 reduces the production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and IL-1β and has local and systemic anti-inflammatory effects [5,6]. Exercise induces the release of IL-6 from skeletal muscle fibers, resulting in increases in plasma concentrations of IL-6 to about 100 times that at rest [7]. Apart from IL-6, various other myokines, which are cytokines secreted from contracting muscles, seem to play important roles in protection against diseases, such as chronic systemic low-grade inflammation [8–11]. The myokine response is governed by various muscle contraction-dependent and sympathetic nervous system-mediated signalling pathways [12]. This may explain the blunted myokine response to exercise in CSCI, given their reduced muscle mass and sympathetic dysfunction [13,14].
Association of Promoter Region Polymorphisms of IL-6 and IL-18 Genes with Risk of Recurrent Pregnancy Loss: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Published in Fetal and Pediatric Pathology, 2020
Erfaneh Salimi, Mojgan Karimi-Zarchi, Seyed Alireza Dastgheib, Hajar Abbasi, Razieh Sadat Tabatabaiee, Amaneh Hadadan, Nooshin Amjadi, Mohammad Javad Akbarian-Bafghi, Hossein Neamatzadeh
RPL is also speculated to be associated with mutations in several interleukin genes that play an important role in regulating both inflammatory and immune processes. Previous epidemiological studies showed that polymorphisms in interleukins (IL-1A, IL-1B, IL-6, IL-18 and IL-10) are associated with increased risk of RPL. Interleukin 6 (IL-6) is an interleukin that acts as both a pro-inflammatory cytokine and an anti-inflammatory myokine. The human IL-6 gene is mapped to chromosome 7p21-24, with an upstream promoter containing 303 bp, contains five exons and spans approximately 6.2 kb [5]. Moreover, interleukin 18 (IL-18) is produced by several cells such as macrophages, chondrocytes and osteoblasts, and induces cell mediated immunity as a response to bacterial toxins, as well as stimulates the production of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) [6]. IL-18, also called IFN-γ inducing factor, is located on chromosome 11q22.2, consists of 6 exons and the translation-starting site is present in exon 2 [7]. Two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the promoter region at -607 C > A and -137 G > C position within the promoter region were suggested to alter the IL-18 promoter activity [8].