Leptospira
Dongyou Liu in Handbook of Foodborne Diseases, 2018
Leptospira is a spirochete that is responsible for causing leptospirosis, and is the most widespread and prevalent zoonotic disease in the world. Leptospirosis has raised considerable public concern during the past few decades due to its involvement in numerous outbreaks. As a most important environmental endemic disease, leptospirosis is often associated with natural disasters such as floods and hurricanes [1]. Leptospira bacteria circulate in nature by chronic renal infection of carrier animals, which excrete the organisms in their urine, thus contaminating the environment eventually. Most human infections are asymptomatic. In symptomatic individuals, leptospirosis presents with a wide spectrum of illness, ranging from undifferentiated febrile illness to severe multisystem disease with increased mortality. There is a significant degree of underdiagnosis due to the extreme variation of clinical presentation.
Bacteria
Loretta A. Cormier, Pauline E. Jolly in The Primate Zoonoses, 2017
The spirochete genus Leptospira includes approximately 17 species, occurs worldwide, and affects humans, wild animals, and domesticated animals (Bharti et al. 2003). Leptospira interrogans is of most concern to humans and is considered an emerging zoonotic infection with human-to-human transmission being rare (PAHO 2003). Humans infected with L. interrogans may be asymptomatic or have mild symptoms of fever or headache, but in severe cases, it can develop into renal failure or pulmonary hemorrhage (Bharti et al. 2003). L. interrogans is itself diverse with over 200 serological variants (PAHO 2003). Human infection occurs through direct exposure to the urine of mammals or indirectly through contaminated soil or water (Bharti et al. 2003). Leptospira has only rarely been documented in wild primates, and thus far only two cases in the vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) have been described, with one being a serovar of L. interrogans and another undetermined Leptospira species. Serovars of L. interrogans were documented in a number of primate species in a survey of research facilities in an older study, including Old World monkeys (Cercocebus, Chlorocebus, Erythrocebus, Macaca, Papio), apes (Hylobates, Pan), and one New World monkey genus (Saguinus) (Minette 1966). Leptospiral antibodies were also found in 15% (11 of 73) of lion tamarins (Leontopithecus spp.) in a Brazilian zoo (Lilenbaum et al. 2005).
Prognosis and Impact of Recurrent Uveitis, the Ophthalmic Infection Caused by Leptospira spp.
K. Balamurugan, U. Prithika in Pocket Guide to Bacterial Infections, 2019
Though leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease, the carriage of Leptospira has been found in virtually all mammalian species human often infected accidentally. Transmission occurs in both industrialized and developing countries. Leptospirosis in humans is always acquired from an animal source; human-to-human transmission is for practical purposes nonexistent. Pathogenic Leptospira have been found in the proximal renal tubules of the kidneys of carriers, although other tissues and organs may also serve as a source of infection. From the kidneys, leptospires are excreted in urine and may then contaminate soil, surface water, streams, and rivers. The carriers may be wild or domestic animals, especially rodents and small marsupials, cattle, pigs, and dogs (Adler and De La Pena Moctezuma 2010). Leptospirosis is an occupational disease for veterinarians, farmers, abattoir workers, butchers, hunters, rodent control workers, and other occupations requiring contact with animals. Indirect contact with contaminated wet soil or water is responsible for the great majority of cases in the tropics, either through occupational exposure as in rice or taro farming, flooding after heavy rains, or exposure to damp soil and water during avocational activities (Musso and La Scola 2013). The expansion of urban slums worldwide has increased the chance of rat-borne transmission (Dunay et al. 2016). Genetic factors are strongly implicated in ERU. Uveitis occurs in all horse breeds, but the strong predilection of some breeds for ERU suggests a genetic link. ERU is most commonly seen in Appaloosas, European Warm-bloods, draught breeds, and Standard bred trotters (Witkowski et al. 2016).
Identification of Leptospira spp. from environmental sources in areas with high human leptospirosis incidence in the Philippines
Published in Pathogens and Global Health, 2019
Marjo V. Mendoza, Windell L. Rivera
Since prolonged rainy season and increased flooding conditions are expected in the coming years, there is a need to investigate the potential environmental reservoirs of leptospires. The present study investigated the presence of Leptospira in regions where human leptospirosis cases had been reported. Using standard PCR which targets 23S rRNA gene and virulence-associated genes, lipL32, lipL41, and ompL1, soil and water samples were screened to identify possible sources of infection. Also, the 16S rRNA gene of each isolate was sequenced for species classification. These data are important for surveillance purposes in areas with high risk of infection, for determination of circulating species in the country, and for the establishment of preventive controls to avert the occurrence of further outbreaks.
Presence of Leptospira spp. and absence of Bartonella spp. in urban rodents of Buenos Aires province, Argentina
Published in Pathogens and Global Health, 2022
Bruno Fitte, Michael Kosoy
Leptospira spp. and Bartonella spp. are important zoonotic agents with worldwide distribution [17–20, 2,21–23]. Numerous studies worldwide reported the association of these bacteria and urban rodents [2,21,23–25]. Leptospirosis is caused by spirochetal bacteria from the genus Leptospira (family Leptospiraceae), with 64 species classified into two clades: pathogenic, or P clade, which includes isolates that cause human or animal infections, and saprophytic, or S clade, which includes species isolated from the environment that do not cause infections [26]. Species clustering in the pathogenic clade are considered more relevant due to their ability to cause a wide range of clinical signs, including multiple organ failure and even death [5,27–31]. Urban rodents are the main source of infection for humans and other vulnerable vertebrate hosts for leptospirosis. Humans may become infected with Leptospira spp. by direct contact with an infected animal or by indirect contact with soil or water contaminated with urine from an infected animal [18,30,31].
Elevated levels of IL-8 in fatal leptospirosis
Published in Pathogens and Global Health, 2020
Wan Shahriman Yushdie Wan Yusoff, Maha Abdullah, Zamberi Sekawi, Fairuz Amran, Muhammad Yazli Yuhana, Niazlin Mohd Taib, Anim Md. Shah, Syafinaz Amin Nordin
The clinical outcome of leptospirosis is highly variable. Most cases are mild, however, there are a significant number of patients with severe medical complications and even death. Mild leptospirosis symptoms include fever, headaches, and myalgia but a small percentage can manifest as conjunctival suffusion, meningitis, rash, jaundice, and renal insufficiency [5,6]. Leptospirosis may progress to Weil’s disease (severe form) exhibiting jaundice, acute renal failure and bleeding with a mortality rate exceeding 10%, or severe pulmonary hemorrhage syndrome (SPHS) with a mortality rate of more than 50% [7–9]. Variation in clinical outcomes has the potential to impede the diagnosis and management of leptospirosis cases. Leptospirosis disease screening uses rapid immunological tests and is confirmed either through a microscopic agglutination test (MAT) or Leptospira antigen detection by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) [10].
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