Continuing Education in Public Health in the United States
Ira Nurmala, Yashwant V. Pathak in Advancing Professional Development through CPE in Public Health, 2019
The 1960s brought major progress for the civil rights movement and for President Lyndon B. Johnson's War on Poverty which included the Office of Equal Opportunity (OEO). The OEO helped create 100 neighborhood health centers and the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (DHEW) supported another 50. A strong environmental movement developed following the publication of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring in 1962. In 1970 Earth Day attracted 20 million Americans in demonstrations against assaults on nature; by 1990 Earth Day brought out 200 million participants in 140 countries (McNeil, 2000). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established and the first Clean Air Act was passed in 1970. Also created during this period were the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
Classification and management of toxicant-related information
Stanley Berent, James W. Albers in Neurobehavioral Toxicology, 2012
Fortunately, the regulatory process appears to have made consistent efforts to achieve a balance between various interests while maintaining a scientific basis for its work. According to Dow (1994), the first federal law in the USA to regulate pesticides was enacted in 1910, and replaced in 1947 with the expanded Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). The Environmental Control Act 1972 changed the emphasis of FIFRA from consumer protection to human and environmental health, with further emphasis on risk–benefit analyses. Further, according to Dow, these changes, together with an expanding toxicology knowledge base, necessitated the improvement and standardization of exposure assessments. The Federal EPA was established in 1970. Historically, the direction taken by regulatory efforts appears to have been towards strengthening the balance between objective science, industry, societal needs, and public safety. The Code of Federal Regulations 1989 (40 CFR 160) demanded that all studies done after that date and submitted in support of pesticide regulation would have to be performed following ‘good laboratory practices’ (Dow, 1994). This put a demand on industry for good science, but it also reflected a welcome philosophical orientation on the part of the agency.
Regulations
Michael Pöschl, Leo M. L. Nollet in Radionuclide Concentrations in Food and the Environment, 2006
The EPA is empowered by law [31] to set enforceable standards for public drinking water supplies in the U.S. The drinking water standards assume a water intake (FI) of 2 l/day, 365 days/yr, and a public dose limit of 0.04 mSv/yr (4 mrem/yr). This dose limit is defined as the dose equivalent and is based on the methodology and terms in earlier publications of the NCRP [32]. The regulation has two standards. One standard is defined as the maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG), which is zero, and the second is maximum contaminant level (MCL). Four groups of radionuclides are listed (see Table 12.19): group I, α particles; group II, β particles and photon emitters; group III, 226Ra plus 228Ra; and group IV, uranium.
Approaches for the setting of occupational exposure limits (OELs) for carcinogens
Published in Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 2023
The initial risk management strategy to ban or substitute chemical carcinogens (irrespective of their presumed MoA) (Section 2.1) was not feasible for all carcinogens. Thus, there was a need for methods to prioritise remaining environmental carcinogens according to potency. This demand was met during the 1980s by approaches to quantitatively estimate risks from exposure to, e.g. environmental carcinogens at ambient levels. The US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) was influential. An obvious problem was, and still is, that empirical risk data are rare at realistic levels of exposure (i.e. levels to which humans are typically exposed) (Melnick et al. 2002). In most cases, extrapolations from epidemiological studies of historically high exposure levels, or from animal bioassays, down to ambient exposure levels were practised with the assumption that the dose–response curve is without a threshold.
Environmental toxic metals in placenta and their effects on preterm delivery-current opinion
Published in Drug and Chemical Toxicology, 2020
Laxmi Singh, Madhu Anand, Saroj Singh, Ajay Taneja
Lead (Pb) is listed as the second most noxious substance among 275 chemicals, even at low concentrations of 2 mg/dL, by Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) which is a component agency of the US. CDC and US. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). World Health Organization (WHO) established a limit value of 0.05 mg/l for Pb in drinking water (Kumar and Puri 2012). But, to date, there is no threshold value of lead in blood for infants and child (CDC 2005). This substance is potentially harmful to reproductive health, and is generally present in water, food, air, soil, and dust. Generally, Pb enters in childbearing population through three ways, namely inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption. Research has shown that more than 90% of Pb in human bones accumulates during childhood (Nordberg et al.1991). Calcium is an essential element for bone development, teeth, muscles and maintenance throughout life. According to National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey, about 90% women do not take recommended amount of calcium and thus leading to Ca deficiency. During pregnancy, deficiency of calcium is directly associated with adverse effects on maternal bone health and has been clearly identified as a main source of fetal Pb exposure (Gulson et al. 2003). Moreover, Faikoglu et al. (2006) found Ca is not properly supplied through process of mobilization in childbearing population meet the high demands, In this case, usually co-mobilization take place through with stored Pb in maternal bones i.e the primary route for fetus exposure.
Evolution of Federalism in Environmental Health: Federal, State, and Local Government Control
Published in Journal of Legal Medicine, 2020
Jennifer R. Black, Matthew Penn, Laurel Berman
Congress created the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970 to protect the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the land that grows our food.44 EPA was then responsible for regulating interstate environmental issues, such as water and air pollution concerns, because these natural resources easily travel between states.45 Some of the most influential pieces of modern regulation passed by EPA within its first decade were the Clean Air Act (1970),46 the Clean Water Act (1972),47 and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976).48 The federal government also developed some of the first major federal environmental laws,49 water and air quality standards, food and drug safety statutes, and tobacco advertising regulations during the 1970s.50
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