AI and Immunology Considerations in Pandemics and SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19
Louis J. Catania in AI for Immunology, 2021
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active, adaptive immunity to a particular infectious disease (e.g., SARS-CoV-2). Vaccination is the act of getting a vaccine, usually as an injection to immunize a person (immunization) to protect against a disease. Testing for an effective vaccine begins with giving the vaccine to animals such as mice or monkeys to see if it produces an immune response. Then Phase One vaccinates a small number of people to test safety and dosage as well as to confirm that it stimulates the immune system. Phase Two includes hundreds of people split into groups (viral injected and placebo), such as children and the elderly, to see if the vaccine acts differently in them as well as safety and ability to stimulate the immune system. Phase Three gives the vaccine to thousands of people (again, two groups) to see how many become infected, compared with volunteers who received a placebo. These trials can determine any rare side effects that might be missed in earlier studies. Finally, if the vaccine protects against the coronavirus in at least 50% of vaccinated people it is considered effective and regulators decide whether to approve the vaccine or not. During a pandemic, a vaccine may receive emergency use authorization before getting formal approval.62
Vaccinations
Vincenzo Berghella in Maternal-Fetal Evidence Based Guidelines, 2022
Pregnancy is an important part of the life cycle when certain infections can play a particularly destructive role. Pregnancy creates a relative immune suppression, which places a woman at greater risk of complications from illnesses such as influenza and varicella. Likewise, maternal infections with such viruses as varicella and rubella can cause a spectrum of fetal effects including congenital anomalies, fetal morbidities, and even fetal death. Finally, neonates are highly susceptible to complications from vaccine preventable diseases at a time when they do not receive full protection from vaccination themselves. Vaccination of an individual induces immunity, a process known as active immunization.Maternal vaccination also provides protection of the neonate through passive immunization, in which maternal antibodies (IgG) are transmitted transplacentally, particularly in the last 4–6 weeks of gestation [3]. An additional benefit may occur with the passage of antibodies (IgA) via breast milk. In addition, by immunizing close contacts of a newborn, the risk of exposure to disease is reduced, a strategy known as cocooning.
Fever, injection, and vaccination
Dinesh Kumar Jain in Homeopathy, 2022
Homeopaths criticized vaccination and injections. According to these experts, vaccination and injections create various complications and also report that these procedures are very dangerous (Ghatak, 1931/1938, p. 223). But we know that injections of various medicines are lifesaving in emergencies. Besides, many drugs are administered only by injections. Vaccinations are highly beneficial in preventing many infectious diseases. In vaccinations, vaccines are administered, which prevent the development of disease. Vaccine is an immunobiological substance, designed to produce specific protection against a given disease. It stimulates the production of protective antibodies of other immune mechanisms. Smallpox, rabies, cholera, diphtheria, TB, pertussis, tetanus, influenza, yellow fever, mumps, polio, measles, rubella, and hepatitis-B vaccines are used in the prevention of respective diseases. In May 1974, the WHO officially launched an immunization program to protect all children of the world against six vaccine-preventable diseases, diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, polio, tuberculosis, and measles by 2000.
The analysis of parental attitude towards active immunoprophylaxis and its influence on the implementation of an Immunization Schedule among children in Poland
Published in Children's Health Care, 2018
Marta Olszewska, Barbara Smykla, Marta Gdańska, Grzegorz Kiełbasa, Matthew Ficinski, Izabela Szymońska, Katarzyna Starzec, Przemko Kwinta
Vaccination is the administration of antigens to stimulate the immune system to develop acquired immunity against a pathogen. Vaccines are unquestionably one of the most cost-effective public health measures for preventing diseases and associated complications (Ehreth, 2003). They protect not only immunized individuals but also unvaccinated individuals through “indirect effects” or “herd immunity” (Fine, Eames, & Heymann, 2011). To unify the immunization policy and increase vaccination coverage, national vaccination strategies are widely implemented. However, their particular organization differs significantly between countries. The analysis performed by the Vaccine European New Integrated Collaboration Effort (VENICE) network in the European Union (EU), Iceland, and Norway revealed that in 14 countries, immunization plans included at least one mandatory vaccination, whereas 15 other countries did not have any obligatory immunization (Haverkate et al., 2012). In the United States, the vaccination schedule includes only recommended vaccines and does not directly oblige parents to provide immunization for children, though American local regulations provide immunization requirements for school children (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016).
Microneedle technology for potential SARS-CoV-2 vaccine delivery
Published in Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery, 2023
Megan McNamee, Shuyi Wong, Owen Guy, Sanjiv Sharma
Vaccinations are medications that prime the body’s immune system, arming it with highly specific defense mechanisms to fight a disease upon potential infection. They are used variously to stimulate the body’s immune system depending on their classification. Summarized in Table 1 are the four generally accepted classifications of vaccinations; (i) whole pathogen, (ii) subunit, (iii) genetic, and (iv) viral vector vaccines [13]. Upon vaccine administration, the innate immune system provides the first of a two-pronged defense against non-self-pathogens. Independent of antigen generation, the nonspecific innate immune system deploys immune cells such as natural killer (NK) cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, and mast cells. These cells classically respond in a phagocytotic manner, with further protection generated through microbe activation of pattern recognition receptors (PRR), resulting in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, they enable the downstream transcription of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) through the JAK-STAT pathway, producing the antiviral cytokines type I and II interferons, and type II, responsible for the promotion of macrophage activation. This rapid response aims to prevent any spread of microbes throughout the body and tends to peak at 24-h post-exposure (Figure 1).
The race for a COVID-19 vaccine: where are we up to?
Published in Expert Review of Vaccines, 2022
Md Kamal Hossain, Majid Hassanzadeganroudsari, Jack Feehan, Vasso Apostolopoulos
More recently, vaccination efforts have begun, with several vaccines being rolled out around the world. Vaccination delivers the virus to immune cells either as live attenuated or whole inactivated, as has been with traditional vaccines, intending to induce immunity against the virus. In an attempt to make vaccines safer but retain immunogenicity, new technologies have been developed to deliver parts of the virus, either as small virus-like particles, DNA, mRNA, use of vectors to deliver mRNA and DNA more efficiently proteins, peptides, carriers, and adjuvants [43]. Vaccines are taken up and processed by antigen-presenting cells, which initiate an immune-activating response of either B cells or T cells, or both. As a result, antibodies and/or T cell responses are generated against the virus, resulting in immunological memory and protection against viral infections and inflammation. Vaccination aims to prevent disease or transmission in the community. With world mass vaccinations, diseases can be controlled. The current COVID-19 vaccines are not designed to treat individuals with COVID-19 but rather protect them against future infections.
Related Knowledge Centers
- Adaptive Immune System
- Herd Immunity
- Protein
- Smallpox
- Toxin
- Virus
- Immune System
- Infection
- Vaccine
- Eradication of Infectious Diseases