Binders in Pharmaceutical Granulation
Dilip M. Parikh in Handbook of Pharmaceutical Granulation Technology, 2021
Starch has traditionally been one of the most widely used tablet binders, although today PGSs are often preferred. Starch is a polysaccharide carbohydrate consisting of glucose monomers linked by glycosidic bonds. The main sources for excipient-grade starch are maize and potato starch. References to wheat, rice, and tapioca starch can also be found in the literature. Starch is a GRAS-listed material with monographs in the USP/NF, Ph. Eur., and JP. Starch is not cold water or alcohol soluble; traditionally, it is used by gelatinizing in hot water to form a paste. A starch paste can be prepared by heating a starch suspension to the boiling point with constant stirring. Binder use levels for starch are usually relatively high (5−25%). The high viscosity of starch paste can make granulation, efficient binder distribution, and substrate wetting somewhat problematic; however, an advantage of starch is that it tends to enhance tablet disintegration.
Macronutrients
Chuong Pham-Huy, Bruno Pham Huy in Food and Lifestyle in Health and Disease, 2022
Starch, the principal carbohydrate in most diets, consists only of a water insoluble polymer of glucose joined by α-glucosidic bonds and is designated α-glucosan or α-glucan (7, 9). In other words, digestible starch is made up of long chains of glucose and comprises two polymers of glucose: amylose and amylopectin (7–9). Most cereal starches contain about 15 to 30% amylose and 70 to 85% amylopectin by weight (9). Some starches, from maize, rice, and sorghum to barley, contain largely amylopectin and are known as ‘waxy’ (7). Starch occurs in the form of granules deposited in plant organs. It is relatively dense, insoluble in cold water, and ranges from 1 to 100 µm in size depending on the plant species (7, 9). Starch furnishes energy to the body after digestion into glucose. In the digestive tract, insoluble starch is broken down into soluble glucose by different enzymes (amylases, dextrinase, glucoamylase, maltase, etc.) present in the mouth saliva, small intestine and pancreas secretion. To facilitate this digestion, starch must be cooked before eating. Recent studies suggest that slowly digested starch and enzyme resistant starch have significant implications for human health (7, 9). Starch plays a major part in supplying the metabolic energy that enables the body to perform different functions. It is the basic source of energy for the majority of the world’s population.
Wheat and Rice – Ancient and Modern Cereals
Raymond Cooper, Jeffrey John Deakin in Natural Products of Silk Road Plants, 2020
White rice has had the bran and germ removed through the process of milling. White rice consists of just the endosperm layer, and it is almost entirely composed of starch. White rice grain consists of about 90% carbohydrate, 8% protein, and 2% fat but is low in fiber. Most of the available carbohydrate in rice grain is starch, which is broken down into glucose by enzymes in the human body to provide energy. There are two types of starch in rice grain: amylose and amylopectin, and they are shown in Figure 10.6. Both amylose and amylopectin are large carbohydrate polymers made of glucose molecules. The difference between them is that amylose has a straight chain, while amylopectin is highly branched. These are very large polymeric molecules, made up of a high number and/or a great variety of monosaccharides, and known as polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are a major source of metabolic energy, both for plants and for those animals, which depend on plants for food. Polysaccharides are a component of the energy transport compound, ATP. Starch is also a homopolysaccharide and only very partially soluble in water. Starch is the substance in which plants store their reserves of carbohydrate and is typically found in bulbs, tubers, and seeds. The main commercial sources of starch are found particularly in rice, and in wheat, maize, and potatoes. Starch is hydrolyzed and broken down in human metabolism to provide glucose.
Cassava toxicity, detoxification and its food applications: a review
Published in Toxin Reviews, 2021
Anil Panghal, Claudia Munezero, Paras Sharma, Navnidhi Chhikara
Cassava contains starch in abundance along with minute concentration of protein, fibers, fat and minerals, and there is variation in distribution of nutrients within plant parts (Table 2). Nutritional composition also varies with variety, soil composition, geographical location, environmental conditions, age, and part of plant. The amount of carbohydrate in raw cassava root is more than potatoes but is less than wheat, rice, yellow corn, and sorghum (Montagnac et al.2009) making it an energy dense source. Eighty percent of carbohydrate is in the form of starch but it also contains small amount of sucrose, glucose, fructose, and maltose (Rawel and Kroll 2003). Cassava root contains 32–35% of carbohydrate on fresh weight basis accounting for its high carbohydrate yield per hectare. It produces nearly 250,000 calories/hectare/day which is more than maize (200,000), rice (176,000), sorghum (114,000), and wheat (110,000) (Charles et al.2005). Sweet variety of cassava contains up to 17% of sucrose with small amount of fructose and dextrose (Charles et al.2005).
Microencapsulation: a pragmatic approach towards delivery of probiotics in gut
Published in Journal of Microencapsulation, 2021
Rabia Iqbal, Atif Liaqat, Muhammad Farhan Jahangir Chughtai, Saira Tanweer, Saima Tehseen, Samreen Ahsan, Muhammad Nadeem, Tariq Mehmood, Syed Junaid Ur Rehman, Kanza Saeed, Nimra Sameed, Shoaib Aziz, Assam Bin Tahir, Adnan Khaliq
The starch granules consist almost entirely of two major polysaccharides, namely amylose and amylopectin. Both consist of chains of α-(1,4)-linked D-glucose residues, which are interconnected through α-(1,6)-glucosidic linkages, thus forming branches in the polymers (Figure 4) (Bertoft 2017). The use of starch has been reported in many studies. Starch is highly being used in food industries as a renewable material feedstock, corn starch, and high amylase corn starches (Ogunsona et al.2018) reported that resistant starch is not digested by amylases (pancreatic enzymes) in the small intestine of human. So, it reaches the colon in undigested form where it is fermented by probiotic bacteria being prebiotic in nature, to discharge the coated active agents (Ogunsona et al.2018, Albadran et al.2020).
Green isolation and physical modification of pineapple stem waste starch as pharmaceutical excipient
Published in Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy, 2019
Annisa Rahma, Melissa Adriani, Puji Rahayu, Raymond R. Tjandrawinata, Heni Rachmawati
The purity of the starch was evaluated by determining the total starch content according to ASEAN Manual of Food Analysis 2011 [17]. The sample was hydrolized with hydrochloric acid (3% v/v) using a reflux apparatus. The hydrolysate was cooled down, neutralized by sodium chloride, filtrated, and made up to 500 mL with deionized water. A 10 mL aliquot of the mixture was treated with Luff solution with the following condition: heating for 3 min using a heater, boiling for 10 min in a reflux condenser, and cooling on an ice bath. The solution was then mixed with sulfuric acid (25% w/v) and potassium iodide (20% w/v), followed by titration with thiosulfate as the titrant and copper blue as the indicator. The amount of sugars (glucose, fructose, and inverted sugar) was determined based on the volume of tiosulphate used in the titration. The total starch content was determined using Equation (1),
Related Knowledge Centers
- Glucose
- Glycosidic Bond
- Polymer
- Polysaccharide
- Staple Food
- Carbohydrate
- Wheat
- Potato
- Maize
- Rice