Macronutrients
Chuong Pham-Huy, Bruno Pham Huy in Food and Lifestyle in Health and Disease, 2022
Estrogens are female hormones of which estradiol is the most potent. They maintain the female reproductive tissues in a fully functional condition, promote the estrous state of preparedness for mating, and stimulate development of the mammary glands and of other feminine characteristics. Progesterone is a hormone secreted by the female reproductive system that functions mainly to regulate the condition of the inner lining (endometrium) of the uterus. Progesterone is produced by the ovaries, placenta, and adrenal glands. In the ovaries the site of progesterone production is the corpus luteum. Progesterone prepares the wall of the uterus to accept a fertilized egg that can be implanted and developed into a fetus. Testosterone is an androgen hormone that primarily influences the growth and development of the male reproductive system. It is produced by the male testes (66, 134–135).
Neurologic disorders in pregnancy
Hung N. Winn, Frank A. Chervenak, Roberto Romero in Clinical Maternal-Fetal Medicine Online, 2021
There is an interaction between steroid sex hormones (estradiol, progesterone) and neurons. Estrogen is known as a proconvulsant and progesterone, a potent anticonvulsant. Overall, the ovarian sex steroids act at the level of the neuron in the CNS and alter the frequency and severity of seizures. It has been shown in WWE that intravenous administration of conjugated estrogens activates epileptiform discharges and may result in seizures. Estradiol also potentiates glutamate receptor-mediated excitatory post-synaptic potentials and excitatory post-synaptic currents on hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cells. Progesterone exerts an inhibitory effect via metabolites such as allopregnanolone, which is a GABA-A-receptor-modulating neurosteroid. Progesterone increases seizure threshold and also has anti-anxiety and sedating effect. The effect of sex hormones and neuronal excitability may explain the pattern of seizure exacerbation during menstruation. Seizures have been reported to occur in a cyclic pattern in between 5% and 70% of WWE, for example, catamenial epilepsy. About 35% of WWE will have significant (> two times) increase in seizure frequency around menstruation. Women with localization-related epilepsies may have an increase in seizures at the time of menarche. Treatment with progesterone may be helpful and the average decline in seizure frequency is about 55%. The possible side effects of progesterone treatment include sedation, depression, weight gain, breast tenderness, and breakthrough vaginal bleeding. This is managed by discontinuing the progesterone or lowering the dose (57).
Managing Pain in the Presence of Autoimmune Disease
Sahar Swidan, Matthew Bennett in Advanced Therapeutics in Pain Medicine, 2020
Now why use estriol and not just estradiol alone? Estriol is the weakest of the three estrogens the body produces but has many functions in the body. It is not strong enough to prevent cardiovascular disease and keep the bones strong though, thus the 20% estradiol. Estradiol is powerful enough to produce improvement in cardiovascular risk and bone health but can turn into estrone excessively.80 Topical estradiol is available in patch form, but great caution needs to be exercised because of its tendency to convert excessively to estrone. Estrogen should never be used without also using progesterone. For one reason, they work together for many processes. Progesterone helps to make good strong bones, and estrogen prevents excessive loss of bone. Also, we do not want excessive estrogen impact on breast tissue without progesterone to protect the breast.81 The same goes for estrogen dominance and its negative impact on autoimmune disease prevention or reversal.74
A focused report on progestogen hypersensitivity
Published in Expert Review of Clinical Immunology, 2023
Diti H. Patel, Lauren M. Fine, Jonathan A. Bernstein
Progesterone, the main progestogen in the human body, is a steroid hormone derived from cholesterol, and is uniquely composed of 21-carbon atoms. The term ‘progestogen’ refers to any natural or synthetic form of progesterone. The term ‘progestin’ is specific for synthetic progestogens. Progesterone has a spectrum of metabolic and physiologic roles on various organ systems, especially within the reproductive system. It is produced by granulosa cells in the corpus luteum, and one of its primary responsibilities is the maintenance of the endometrial thickness prior to menses. The increase in progesterone during the menstrual cycle occurs due to a luteal hormone (LH) surge, marking the beginning of the luteal phase. When pregnancy occurs, the placenta becomes the primary source of progesterone at around 10 weeks gestation. Progesterone plays a vital role in maintaining the uterus during pregnancy by decreasing the myometrial tone, increasing spiral artery development, and inhibiting prolactin release. Aside from its responsibilities in the reproductive system, progesterone acts on the hypothalamus to increase body temperature and help regulate the immune system. This latter function occurs through the production of inflammatory cytokines by T lymphocytes [4,5] as well as binding to progesterone receptors on mast cells [6]. However, it is still unclear if and how the impact of progesterone on the immune system in normal biology may contribute to the development of hypersensitivity response to progesterone.
The gonadal response to social stress and its relationship to cortisol
Published in Stress, 2021
Belinda Pletzer, Eefje S. Poppelaars, Johannes Klackl, Eva Jonas
As described in Poppelaars et al. (2019), of the 85 university students who participated in the experiment, 37 men (age: M = 22.8, SD = 2.6) and 30 women (age: M = 22.9, SD = 2.8) fulfilled the inclusion criteria, i.e. they were 18–35 years old, right-handed, had normal or corrected-to-normal vision, were heterosexual, free of psychiatric and endocrinological disorders, free of medication, and not regular smokers or drinkers. Female participants did not use oral hormonal contraception or an intrauterine device for the past three months, were not currently pregnant or breast-feeding, had a regular menstrual cycle (21–35 days, Fehring et al., 2006) and were tested in their luteal cycle phase (day 3–10 before onset of next menses, high progesterone). The average cycle duration in the final sample was 27.6 days (SD = 3.2) and the average testing day was day 20.5 (SD = 3.6). Progesterone levels were in a plausible range of 42.6 and 527.5 pg/mL, with an average of 194.7 (SD = 121.9).
Bioidentical hormones
Published in Climacteric, 2021
F. Z. Stanczyk, H. Matharu, S. A. Winer
In contrast to salivary E2 levels, the levels of progesterone are considerably higher and can be measured by a well-validated EIA. The reference range of salivary progesterone in postmenopausal women is reported to be 12–100 pg/ml at the ZRT Laboratory. As stated earlier, salivary progesterone levels are approximately 10-fold greater than those observed in serum in postmenopausal women treated with an 80-mg dose of topical progesterone cream. Thus, tissue levels of progesterone may be very high, but this is not reflected in circulating levels. This is a concern because progesterone is transformed to many metabolites, some of which are active, e.g. neurosteroids such as allopregnanolone. Therefore, excessive intake of progesterone may cause adverse effects such as hormonal imbalance and mood swings. Pursuing saliva testing research may also be valuable for the group of patients who have a sensitivity to progesterone products.
Related Knowledge Centers
- Estrogen
- Menstrual Cycle
- Metabolic Intermediate
- Steroid
- Embryo
- Corticosteroid
- Pregnancy
- Progestogen
- Sex Hormone
- Neurosteroid