Cell Biology
C.S. Sureka, C. Armpilia in Radiation Biology for Medical Physicists, 2017
Carbohydrates are the body’s main source of energy. Many of them have the general formula of (CH2O)n>4, and some of them include nitrogen or sulfur in addition to carbon (C), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H). On the basis of the number of forming units, carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are considered to be simple sugars that cannot be broken down further. Examples are glucose, fructose, and galactose. When two monosaccharides are linked together disaccharides are formed, for example, sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and maltose. Polysaccharides are large macromolecules consisting of many monosaccharide units. Examples include starch and glycogen. Even though carbohydrates are necessary throughout the body, they play a major role in delivering energy to the vital organs, such as the central nervous system, kidneys, brain, liver, heart, etc.
Binders in Pharmaceutical Granulation
Dilip M. Parikh in Handbook of Pharmaceutical Granulation Technology, 2021
Starch has traditionally been one of the most widely used tablet binders, although today PGSs are often preferred. Starch is a polysaccharide carbohydrate consisting of glucose monomers linked by glycosidic bonds. The main sources for excipient-grade starch are maize and potato starch. References to wheat, rice, and tapioca starch can also be found in the literature. Starch is a GRAS-listed material with monographs in the USP/NF, Ph. Eur., and JP. Starch is not cold water or alcohol soluble; traditionally, it is used by gelatinizing in hot water to form a paste. A starch paste can be prepared by heating a starch suspension to the boiling point with constant stirring. Binder use levels for starch are usually relatively high (5−25%). The high viscosity of starch paste can make granulation, efficient binder distribution, and substrate wetting somewhat problematic; however, an advantage of starch is that it tends to enhance tablet disintegration.
Functional Foods
Datta Sourya, Debasis Bagchi in Extreme and Rare Sports, 2019
Carbohydrates (carb) are the primary energy source, and hence are highly concentrated on by athletes and sports nutritionists. Also, carbohydrates maintain cellular homeostasis and thereby regulate cellular respiration (ATP production) and overall health status. Major types of carbohydrates are mono-, oligo- and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are simple sugars, including glucose (dextrose), fructose and galactose, whereas oligo and polysaccharides are complex sugars, which contain many monosaccharides. Glycemic index (GI) is a score assigned to food (carbohydrate) based on how quickly or slowly they increase the blood glucose levels (Baynes, 2018). Glycogen is a type of polysaccharide made of high numbers of glucose, which is the stored form of glucose in our body (liver and skeletal muscles). Glycogen is the major source of energy for endurance athletes.
Recent treatment modalities for cardiovascular diseases with a focus on stem cells, aptamers, exosomes and nanomedicine
Published in Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology, 2018
Rahul Mittal, Vasanti M. Jhaveri, Hannah S. McMurry, Sae-In Samantha Kay, Kyle J. Sutherland, Lin Nicole, Jeenu Mittal, Rahul Dev Jayant
A polysaccharide-based nanosystem is a popular avenue for targeting certain cardiovascular pathologies such as atherothrombotic disease. Polysaccharides are long-chain carbohydrate molecules that are made up of identical monosaccharide units. These individual units are held together by glycosidic bonds. Polysaccharides not only have great structural diversity but also play a role in a variety of cellular functions including cell signalling and adhesion [57]. Atherothrombotic pathology is highly associated with polysaccharide recognition, which allows for both targeted and inhibitory therapy [58]. The well-known polysaccharide-based nanosystems used to combat atherosclerotic-related pathological disease include chitosan and dextran-coated nanoparticles. Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide that is protonated in acidic to neutral solutions rendering it as a hydrophilic cationic polyelectrolyte [59]. Due to electrostatic interactions, chitosan has been noted to strongly interact with fibrin, a negatively charged fibrous protein [60]. Chung et al. conducted an in vitro study to examine whether chitosan-coated nanoparticles could enhance clot penetration by reducing time needed for thrombolysis using tissue-plasminogen activator (t-PA) [61]. Results showed that t-PA-loaded nanoparticles had a significantly lesser t-PA-related thrombolysis time than t-PA administered alone in solution. Furthermore, results showed that t-PA-loaded nanoparticles also greatly helped with clot permeation.
Emerging therapeutic targets for neuroblastoma
Published in Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets, 2020
Natarajan Aravindan, Terence Herman, Sheeja Aravindan
Many recent findings indicated the potential of natural phytochemicals in HR-NB treatment. As discussed above, the benefit of ginsenoside-RK1 in targeting NB EMT and malignancy/metastatic behavior has been realized [103]. Likewise, studies have extensively documented the anti-tumor and chemo/radiosensitizing potential (and mechanisms) of curcumin and its synthetic analogues in NB [155–158]. 4-hydroxy chalcone (4HC, flavonoid) treatment induced NB cell death by increasing oxidative stress and LDH activity, and prompted chemosensitization to doxorubicin and cisplatin [159]. Conversely, a polysaccharide from Angelica sinensis has been shown to attenuate BCl2, activate Bax and Casp3, and promote apoptosis [160]. This polysaccharide: (i) inhibited the TGFβ1-induced EMT by targeting N-Cad, vimentin, and Zeb1 and activating E-Cad and (ii) upregulated TS-miR-205, consequently suppressing PI3K/AKT and ERK1/2 signaling [160]. Also, S-allyl-L-cysteine from aged-garlic extract prompted mitochondrial membrane depolarization and induced NB cell death [161].
Development and evaluation of dapsone tablets coated for specific colon release
Published in Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy, 2020
Priscila Debastiani Barros, Isabela Fernanda Teixeira Dias, Giovane Douglas Zanin, Élcio José Bunhak
Polysaccharides are carbohydrates containing interconnected subunits of monosaccharides and are found in animal tissues (chitosan, chondroitin sulfate) plants (Goma Guar, Inulin) and microorganisms (Dextran). They are available in abundance, at low cost, nontoxic, and with ease of modification, generally stable and safe, with the capacity to form films [7,8]. The microbiota of the colon, represented mainly by the species Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria are anaerobic and are nourished by the fermentation of non-starch polysaccharides. [9]. Bifidobacterium, Bacteroids, Lactobacillus, and enterobacteria are capable of metabolizing several types of substrates that are not digested in the small intestine, producing specific enzymes for the fermentation process, such as glucuronidase, xylosidase, arabinoside, galactosidase and azo-reductases [10]. In view of the diversity of the colonic microbiota, approximately five hundred different species, this approach allows the use of coating films in pharmaceutical formulations for the release of the drug through the cleavage of polymers by microorganisms [11].
Related Knowledge Centers
- Amylase
- Glycogen
- Glycosidic Bond
- Hydrolysis
- Monosaccharide
- Oligosaccharide
- Polymer
- Starch
- Carbohydrate
- Galactogen