Common Medicines from Herbs, Minerals and Animal Sources
Mehwish Iqbal in Complementary and Alternative Medicinal Approaches for Enhancing Immunity, 2023
Studies regarding acute toxicity of AfL.s (active fraction of Lavandula stoeachas) specified that the plant, if consumed in large doses (greater than 400 mg/kg per oral), can result in seizures, hyperactivity, ataxia, hyperstimulation and sudden death. These harmful effects are because of the great doses of phenethylamine, which may have potentially toxic effects and are accountable for seizures, confusion, headaches, hallucinations and subsequently death in humans (Nelson et al., 2014). Tremors, headache, restlessness, aggression and diarrhoea are minor adverse effects, which may be noticed with the phenethylamine overdoses. Previous studies have stated that extremely toxic doses of phenethylamine (around 125–200 mg per kilogram intra-peritoneal) produced serious seizures and, at last, death because of the hyperstimulation of the brain and cardiac arrest. The LD50 for the active fraction of Lavandula stoechas was measured as 325 mg per kilogram per oral, which specified that it had an extensive pharmacological index (Dourish & Cooper, 1983; Mushtaq et al., 2021) (Figure 12.6).
Energy drinks
Jay R Hoffman in Dietary Supplementation in Sport and Exercise, 2019
Phenylethylamine is an ingredient thought to enhance the mood of subjects with a potential effect on reducing appetite. Prior research has shown that phenylethylamine can produce relief of depression in a clinical population, even in people that were unresponsive to standard treatments (79). The mechanism of action is thought to be related to the stimulation of dopamine release (63), which not only improves mood, but has also been shown to reduce appetite (22). An advantage in the use of phenylethylamine is thought to be related to the beneficial improvements seen in mood without producing a tolerance often associated with amphetamines (79). Phenylethylamine may also stimulate lipolysis through its ability to stimulate catecholamine release and delay reuptake (67). Although phenylethylamine does not appear to be a primary ingredient for use in a weight loss product, the use of this product is likely focused on enhancing mood that can contribute to appetite suppression.
Morbid Exercise Behavior
Henning Budde, Mirko Wegner in The Exercise Effect on Mental Health, 2018
The monoamine model is derived from the early observation that exercise triggers an increase in the levels of catecholamines in the peripheral blood circulation (Cousineau et al. 1977). Later, Szabo, Billett, and Turner (2001) showed that a 30-minute episode of medium to high-intensity aerobic exercise increased uric phenylacetic acid levels – reflecting the phenylethylamine concentration – in healthy males who were habituated to exercise. While catecholamines, among other functions, are involved in the stress response, phenylethylamine is more closely linked to changes in mood. In light of the monoamine hypothesis, it is thought that in addition to an increase in monoamines in the peripheral circulation, the central aminergic activity may also rise in response to exercise. Since brain monoamines are involved in the regulation of mood and affect, their alteration by exercise seems to be an attractive explanation for the role of exercise in the stress response. This is a psychophysiological model that is probably more closely linked to the positive mood-enhancing effects of exercise than exercise addiction per se. Nevertheless, in light of this model, exercise may act as a buffer in the addiction process, in that the negative emotional experiences resulting from life stress are soaked up by the positive effects of exercise.
A primer on sleeping, dreaming, and psychoactive agents
Published in Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 2023
Unlike the indolylalkylamines which only produce hallucinogenic effects, the phenylethylamines also have secondary stimulant effects not only altering serotonin but also norepinephrine and dopamine, though to a lesser degree than drugs that amphetamines. DOM (2,5-Dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine), also known as ‘STP’ (serenity, tranquility, and peace), can include sleeplessness, dry mouth, nausea, blurred vision, sweating, flushed skin, and shaking, along with exhaustion, confusion, excitement, delirium, and convulsions, which also impact sleep. MDMA can cause the acute depletion of presynaptic serotonin which play a direct role in regulating aggression, mood, sexual activity, sensitivity to pain, and sleep. MDMA users typically experience restless, disturbed sleep for up to 48 hr following drug use. Total sleep time has been found to be reduced, with increased time spent in transition, stage one sleep and less time in stage two. While there was no reported change in REM sleep, there was an increased risk of sleep apnea with continued use of MDMA (McCann et al., 2009; Schierenbeck et al., 2008).
A primer on sleeping, dreaming, and psychoactive agents
Published in Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions, 2023
Unlike indolylalkylamines, which only produce hallucinogenic effects, the phenylethylamines also have secondary stimulant effects, not only altering serotonin but also norepinephrine and dopamine, through to a lesser degree than drugs such as amphetamines. DOM (2,5-Dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine) also known as the ”STP” (serenity, tranquility, and peace) can include sleeplessness, dry mouth, nausea, blurred vision, sweating, flushed skin, and shaking, along with exhaustion, confusion, excitement, delirium, and convulsions, which also impact sleep. MDMA can cause the acute depletion of presynaptic serotonin, which plays a direct role in regulating aggression, mood, sexual activity, sensitivity to pain, and sleep. MDMA users typically experience restless, disturbed sleep for up to 48 hours following drug use. Total sleep time has been found to be reduced, with increased time spent in transition, stage one sleep and less time in stage two. While there was no reported change in REM sleep, there was an increased risk of sleep apnea with continued use of MDMA (McCann et al., 2009; Schierenbeck et al., 2008).
A more specific concept of a pharmacophore to better rationalize drug design, tailor patient therapy, and tackle bacterial resistance to antibiotics
Published in Expert Opinion on Drug Discovery, 2022
Jessica Rubí Morán Díaz, Juan Alberto Guevara-Salazar, Roberto Issac Cuevas Hernández, José Guadalupe Trujillo Ferrara
The same phenomenon occurs not only with antibiotics, but also with other groups of drugs, such as catecholamines. Phenylethylamine, the molecular base of these drugs, is crucial for recognition and activity. Modifications in the side chain attached to the amine group of the molecular base can alter selectivity between ⍺ and β adrenergic receptors. The β receptor orientation is related to a larger volume of the substituent on the amine group and the α receptor orientation to a smaller volume of the same substituent. Some studies on drugs and substances with antagonist activity on α1A receptors have identified portions of molecules as pharmacophores involved in the recognition of the receptor and the production of a biological effect. Hence, it is essential to consider all available information on binding orientation and the structure-activity relationship to rationalize drug design [16,17].
Related Knowledge Centers
- Alkaloid
- Central Nervous System
- Monoamine Neurotransmitter
- Organic Compound
- Stimulant
- Natural Product
- Trace Amine
- Taar1
- Vesicular Monoamine Transporter 2
- Neuron