Agrochemicals: A Brief Overview
Dongyou Liu in Handbook of Foodborne Diseases, 2018
Fungicidal chemicals are derived from a variety of structures, from simple inorganic compounds, such as copper sulfate, to complex organic molecules (see Table 107.3). Most fungicides are applied prior to potential infection by fungal spores, either to plants or to postharvest crops, while some are used as systemic fungicides, which are absorbed and distributed throughout the plant. With few exceptions, fungicides have low acute toxicity in mammals, though a number may be genotoxic and have carcinogenic potential. In the past, certain fungicides have been associated with severe epidemics of poisoning and have since been banned. For example, methylmercury was associated with widespread poisonings in Iraq, when grains treated with this fungicide and intended for planting were instead consumed (108). More complete discussions on the use and toxicity of fungicides can be found in Hayes (5) and Edwards et al. (109).
Water and foodborne contamination *
Jamie Bartram, Rachel Baum, Peter A. Coclanis, David M. Gute, David Kay, Stéphanie McFadyen, Katherine Pond, William Robertson, Michael J. Rouse in Routledge Handbook of Water and Health, 2015
Pre-harvest control and remediation techniques include interrupting pathways by which pathogens enter the food supply (see below “The role of water in contamination of the food supply”). Most notably, microbiologically safe water should be used for crop irrigation and livestock production. Post-harvest controls include screening food for contamination. Mycotoxin, in particular, is most effectively reduced when crops are properly screened for contamination (Binder, 2007). Once contamination of crops is identified, diets can be shifted away from highly contaminated crops, agricultural practices should be improved to reduce fungal infection (e.g., improved irrigation, use of fungicides, reducing plant density), or crop storage should be improved (e.g., reducing temperature and moisture, adding preservatives) (Wild and Gong, 2010; Chulze, 2010). However, screening for pathogens in the food supply is often too difficult. In regions with sufficient resources, a foodborne outbreak will trigger an epidemiological investigation to identify the food source responsible for the outbreak (Tauxe, 1997).
Environmental toxicants on Leydig cell function
C. Yan Cheng in Spermatogenesis, 2018
Many azole chemicals, such as prochloraz, epoxiconazole, tebuconazole, and iprodione are used for fungicides to protect plants in the agriculture field. Prochloraz is classified as an antiandrogen. Maternal exposure to prochloraz caused malformation of male reproductive tracts in fetal male rats and reduced steroidogenesis in the testis.215 Prochloraz decreased serum testosterone levels and delayed puberty in males during pubertal exposure.216 Exposure to prochloraz (50 and 150 mg/kg BW/day) to rats from gestational day 7 to postnatal day 16 inhibited testicular testosterone levels but increased progesterone levels without affecting Cyp17a1, suggesting a direct inhibition of CYP17A1 in the Leydig cells.217 Indeed, prochloraz inhibited rat testicular CYP17A1 activity with Ki around 1 μM.215 Using human adrenal H295R cells, prochloraz also concentration-dependently inhibited human CYP17A1 activity,218 and the inhibition was more selective since it did not inhibit another CYP enzyme CYP11B1, which is required for glucocorticoid biosynthesis.218
Genotoxic action of Luna Experience-SC 400 fungicide on rat bone marrow
Published in Biomarkers, 2019
Ayla Çelik, Gizem Güler, Cuma Aktaş, Serap Yalin
Fungicides are biocidal chemical compounds used to fight fungal diseases both in cultivation and in animals (Haverkate et al.1969). Luna Experience-SC 400 is a new line fungicide with Fluoropyram/Tebuconazole Combination. The LD50 values of Luna Experience-SC 400 is 2000 mg/kg according to product data sheet. Luna Experience-SC 400 contains 200 g/L tebuconazole and 200 g/L fluoropyram as active substance. In a toxicologic study, at the end of 24 months in a 2-yeear study without a specific cause, it was reported that deaths occurred especially in male mice. The mean weights of female and male individuals were recorded, and an increase in liver weight was reported to indicate that the target organ of the study was the liver (Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety Secondary 2014).
Electron Beam Irradiated Chitosan elicits enhanced antioxidant properties combating resistance to Purple Blotch Disease (Alternaria porri) in Onion (Allium cepa).
Published in International Journal of Radiation Biology, 2022
Harshvardhan Dattatray Gaikwad, Sunil Govind Dalvi, Shrihari Hasabnis, Penna Suprasanna
Onion is the most extensively grown vegetable species in the Allium genus but is challenged by fungal diseases such as purple blotch, Stemphylium blight, downy mildew, Fusarium basal rot, white rot, rust, smut, and black mold. Purple blotch caused by Alternaria porri is a devastating foliar diseases in all the Allium cultivating countries (Kareem et al. 2012). Alternaria sp. is the most mycotoxigenic fungi which secretes toxins such as tenuazonic acid, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altenuene, and tentoxin with demonstrated role in mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and metabolic disorders (Lee et al. 2015; Escrivá et al. 2017). Alternaria porri infection results in severe yield losses ranging from 5% to 96.5% in both the bulb and seed crop (Gupta et al. 1994). Since biological control measures are unable to control the disease successfully, chemical fungicides are majorly advocated (Yadav et al. 2017). Although other practices such as low dense planting, well-drained soil, the application of drip irrigation, and use of resistant or tolerant variety and fingicide spray are adopted, prevention of the purple blotch disease is still a major challenge (Mishra et al. 2014). Chemical control through seed treatment with thiram and frequent application of recommended fungicides like foliar sprays of mancozeb (Shaikh and Anandhan 2013) often results in the development of resistance in pathogenic fungi and presence of residue has become a major environmental concern (Damalas and Eleftherohorinos 2011).
Lymphocytes DNA damages and exposure to chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin, penconazole, copper oxicloride
Published in Biomarkers, 2019
Giovanni Maria Ferri, Domenica Cavone, Marcantonio Dambrosio, Graziana Intranuovo, Nunzia Schiavulli, Francesco Birtolo, Valeria Vilardi, Maria Celeste Delfino, Linda Macinagrossa, Vincenzo Corrado, Luigi Vimercati
Finally, the most diffuse fungicides were mancozeb, fosetyl-aluminium, copper oxychloride and pencozanole. The first two were described in other experiences (Higo et al.1996, Calviello et al.2006, Intranuovo et al.2018). The fungicide copper oxychloride, with the trade name of Cymoxanil [CAS no: 1332-40-7, 1332-65-6], is a common fungicide used against Spilocaea oleaginea and other vegetables and fruit diseases (Pérez-Rodríguez et al.2013, Al-Assiuty et al.2014). Its absorbance may cause diseases such as kidney dysfunctions, hepatocellular neoplasia and hemolytic anemia (Waheed et al.2014); it was indicated in different studies as a genotoxic potential for human lymphocytes in vitro (Bayram 2016). Penconazole [CAS no: 66246-88-6; EC no: 215-102-2], with the trade name of Topaz, is a triazole fungicide used on the grapes. Toxicological indicated outcomes were hepato-carcinogenic effects and thyroid tumours (Allen et al.2006, Wolf et al.2006). Its activity is related to the inhibition of sterol 14 alfa – demethylate (encoded by CYP51 gene) and aromatase (encoded by CYP19 gene) with endocrine disruption (Zarn et al. 2003).
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