Psychological Effects of Exercise for Disease Resistance and Health Promotion
Ronald R. Watson, Marianne Eisinger in Exercise and Disease, 2020
The symptomatology of typical Major Depression, including weight loss and early morning awakening, implicates the neuroendocrine system in the etiology and psychopathology of depression. Patients who are anxious and depressed typically show signs and symptoms of a disrupted HPA axis at rest and during challenge. These signs and symptoms include disturbances of mood, appetite, sleep, motivated behavior, and several indices of autonomic, endocrine, and immune status.56 A common thread that binds these signs and symptoms is hypercortisolism, i.e., abnormally high secretion of cortisol. One of the major functions of cortisol is to maintain blood sugar levels during stress through the liberation and use of stored fat and glycogen and amino acids from muscle cells. In normal physiological concentrations, cortisol helps the body combat stress. However, in very high concentrations cortisol suppresses immune responses to infection and can inhibit healing. Collectively, the evidence57 is consistent with the hypothesis that glucocorticoid regulation and the monaminergic systems reinforce one another’s activity.
Fighting for our lives
Philip N. Murphy in The Routledge International Handbook of Psychobiology, 2018
At the same time as the SAM pathway is triggered, the hypothalamus also activates the slower-acting HPA axis, which maintains a more sustained response to an emergency. If the brain continues to signal that a threat is present, the hypothalamus will secrete corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) which triggers the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in the pituitary gland. ACTH then causes the adrenal glands to increase the levels of circulating cortisol in the blood which generates the resources needed for a sustained response to threat, such as increasing blood glucose levels. If cortisol levels remain high, then an appropriate stress response is maintained. If levels of circulating cortisol reduce, then the emergency is deemed to be over and the body returns to normal functioning. See Figure 3.2.
The Gut Microbiota, Health and Exercise
Martin Colin R, Derek Larkin in Probiotics in Mental Health, 2018
The vagus nerve is essential for communication between the bacteria, the gut and the brain (Desbonnet et al., 2009). This microbiota-gut-brain axis allows for bidirectional communication whereby the gut can influence changes in the brain and vice versa (Mayer et al., 2006) with any dysfunction in the axis linked to alterations in pain perception, emotion and overall wellbeing (Rhee et al., 2009). In terms of humoral response, activation of the HPA axis causes corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF) to be released from the hypothalamus, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) to be released from the pituitary and cortisol to be released from the adrenal glands (Cryan and Dinan, 2012). When cortisol is chronically elevated it can have a negative impact on factors such as immune function, glucose metabolism and mood. Therefore, impairment of the HPA system is linked to both stress and depression (Belmaker and Agam, 2008).
Recent developments in wearable & non-wearable point-of-care biosensors for cortisol detection
Published in Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics, 2023
Simran Kaur, Niharika Gupta, Bansi D. Malhotra
Apart from responding to stress levels, cortisol plays an immunosuppressive role and displays anti-inflammatory effects [26]. It also affects growth, digestion, and reproduction abilities [2728]. Elevation in the cortisol level in a recurring pattern of activation is associated with Cushing’s syndrome, which further poses complications like increased fat in the blood, anxiety, obesity, cardiac diseases [729]. These levels can also get elevated during depression and hunger [30]. Additionally, cortisol deficiencies may lead to the Addisonian crisis, distinguished by critical dehydration as well as salt wasting. It is a deadly condition; hence, early detection is of utmost importance. Mild deficiencies have also been found to play an important role but are difficult to diagnose clinically due to the prevalence of non-specific symptoms (Figure. 1). Symptoms of cortisol excess like hypertension, increase in weight, etc., are similar to symptoms of obesity, which may lead to a delay in proper diagnosis. Hence, PoC biosensing devices that provide results in real-time may prove crucial toward cortisol-related pathological conditions.
Dysfunction of the stress response in individuals with persistent post-concussion symptoms: a scoping review
Published in Physical Therapy Reviews, 2022
Gerard Farrell, Sizhong Wang, Cathy Chapple, Ewan Kennedy, Angela Spontelli Gisselman, Kesava Sampath, Chad Cook, Steve Tumilty
The ability to subjectively determine who has dysfunction of the stress response, and in what direction it is dysfunctional, is a significant knowledge gap. Using the HPA-axis as an example, symptoms such as irritability, insomnia, decreased concentration, and blunted cortisol reactivity to stress are common in states characterised by increased secretion of cortisol [98,99]. Whereas symptoms such as fatigue, nausea, apathy, and heightened cortisol reactivity to stress are common in those with reduced secretion of cortisol [8, 100]. Despite different populations, the symptoms of both hyper- and hypo-cortisolism are common with the symptoms of those with PPCS [22], challenging our diagnostic ability of a dysfunctional stress response from symptoms alone. An appropriately powered study, using valid and reliable self-reported outcome measures, in combination with quantifiable measures of ANS and HPA-axis dysfunction, is required to better differentiate between these possible ‘sub-categories’ of the stress response.
The Health Benefits of Sexual Expression
Published in International Journal of Sexual Health, 2021
Woet L. Gianotten, Jenna C. Alley, Lisa M. Diamond
Cortisol is relevant in stress and immunity, specifically, chronically elevated levels of cortisol can be detrimental to both physical and psychological health. While there is limited information on the relationship between actual sexual behavior and cortisol, some research has dealt with the relationship between cortisol and various forms of arousal. Alley et al. (2019) found steady declines in cortisol across an experimental induction of sexual arousal (via auditory stimuli). Many others have found similar patterns of decline during various forms of arousal (Exton et al., 2000; Hamilton et al., 2008; Heiman et al., 1991). In parallel, intimate behaviors, such as skin touching (hugging, massage, stroking) also appear to decrease cortisol levels, although not investigated about sexuality (Woods et al., 2009). While research in this area is limited, some findings suggest that sexual behavior and associated intimacy can decrease cortisol levels, potentially blunting the negative effects of chronic stress hormone exposure (Young et al., 2004).
Related Knowledge Centers
- Adrenal Cortex
- Circadian Rhythm
- Glucocorticoid
- Hydrocortisone
- Steroid Hormone
- Stress
- Zona Fasciculata
- Gluconeogenesis
- Adrenal Gland
- Blood Sugar Level