Drinking water treatment *
Jamie Bartram, Rachel Baum, Peter A. Coclanis, David M. Gute, David Kay, Stéphanie McFadyen, Katherine Pond, William Robertson, Michael J. Rouse in Routledge Handbook of Water and Health, 2015
Chloramines are derivatives of ammonia by the substitution of one, two or three hydrogen atoms with chlorine atoms forming monochloramine (chloramine NH2Cl), dichloramine (NHCl2) and nitrogen trichloride (NCl3) respectively, and their use in drinking water disinfection is termed ‘chloramination’. The chemistry of the formation of chloramine is complicated and needs to be carefully controlled to ensure that monochloramine (chloramine), the most effective of the chloramines, is primarily formed and that as little as possible of the di- and tri-forms of chloramines are formed. The formation of dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride can result in taste and odour issues as well as concerns over their long-term health effects. Ammonia (NH3) is reacted with chlorine (Cl2). The chloramines speciation depends on the relative amounts of NH3 and Cl2 present:2
Chemical Compounds as Trigger Factors of Immediate Contact Skin Reactions
Ana M. Giménez-Arnau, Howard I. Maibach in Contact Urticaria Syndrome, 2014
Chloramine is commonly used as a sterilizer, disinfectant, and chemical reagent. It has been described as an occupational hazard for pharmaceutical workers, nurses, and cleaners. Goossens et al. reported the first case of immediate positive epicutaneous tests to chloramine powder solutions used by a nurse.[48] All skin tests performed on the patient were suspicious of an immediate-type reaction. The immunological nature of the clinical manifestations was investigated by RAST on serum of the patient. High levels of IgE antibodies to chloramine were found, those previously bound to human serum albumin (HSA). The clinical manifestation on the patient was confirmed by radioimmunoassay and classified as a stage 3 CoU syndrome. Chloramine is often confused with chloramine-T because both are employed as sterilizer, antiseptic, and disinfectant agents. However, they are two different chemicals. Chloramine-T is an N-chlorinated deprotonated sulfonamide, a white powder, compared with chloramine, which is a simple monochlorinated amine (NH2Cl) that is a colorless liquid usually handled as a diluted aqueous solution. Allergic asthma caused by chloramine-T is well known and the reactions are IgE-mediated. Kramps et al. were able to demonstrate the presence of specific IgE antibodies in the serum of asthmatic chloramine-T allergic patients.[49] However, skin symptoms of IgE-dependent CoU have also been reported in the case of a hospital bath attendant in Finland. The performed RAST to chloramine-T showed specific IgE antibodies with values being defined as positive.[50]
Miscellaneous chemicals *
Bev-Lorraine True, Robert H. Dreisbach in Dreisbach’s HANDBOOK of POISONING, 2001
Inhalation of hypochlorous acid fumes causes severe pulmonary irritation with coughing and choking followed by pulmonary edema. Ingestion causes irritation and corrosion of mucous membranes with pain and vomiting. Systemic effects include fall in blood pressure, delirium, and coma. Edema of the pharynx and larynx may be severe. Aspiration causes severe tracheobronchial irritation and exudation. Esophageal stenosis may occur later. Perforation of the esophagus or stomach has occurred but is rare. Prolonged skin contact with bleaching solution causes irritation. Chloramine-T causes cyanosis and respiratory failure.
Inorganic chloramines: a critical review of the toxicological and epidemiological evidence as a basis for occupational exposure limit setting
Published in Critical Reviews in Toxicology, 2020
Gunilla Wastensson, Kåre Eriksson
Inorganic chloramines, i.e. monochloramine (NH2Cl), dichloramine (NHCl2) and trichloramine (NCl3), are formed when free1 chlorine reacts with nitrogen-containing substances present in e.g. chlorinated (disinfection) water sources. In the occupational setting, this may occur in swimming pool facilities (WHO 2006) and in the food processing industry (Héry et al. 1998, 1999; King et al. 2006; Massin et al. 2007). Inorganic chloramines may also be formed in industrial processes when liquid waste containing ammonium ions is mixed with a sodium hypochlorite solution (Okada et al. 2014). Monochloramine, dichloramine and trichloramine are not known to be commercial products but monochloramine is generated in situ as needed to disinfect drinking water and waste water (US EPA 1994; IARC 2004).
The Effect of Sildenafil on Selenite-Induced Cataract in Rats
Published in Current Eye Research, 2020
Hatice Tuba Atalay, Ahmet Yucel Ucgul, Ummuhani Ozel Turkcu, Mehmet Cuneyt Ozmen, Samet Yilmaz, Ayse Bilgihan
AOPP levels in serum were measured according to the spectrophotometric method of Witko-Sarsat et al.19 To measure the levels of AOPP of serum, 200 μL of serum was reconstituted with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). After that, 10 μL of potassium iodide and 20 μL of acetic acid were added. The samples were vortexed, and a spectrophotometric measurement was obtained with PBS as a blank at 340 nm absorbance. Dilutions of the chloramine T standard (0–100 μM) were used for calculation of sample concentration. The results of AOPP for lens tissue and serum were expressed as μM/mg and μmol/L, respectively.
The clinical toxicology of sodium hypochlorite
Published in Clinical Toxicology, 2019
Robin J. Slaughter, Martin Watts, J. Allister Vale, Jacob R. Grieve, Leo J. Schep
Hypochlorite is an oxidizing agent, and its potential to cause toxicity is related to its oxidizing capacity and the pH of the associated solution. Toxicity of hypochlorite also arises from its corrosive activity upon contact with skin and mucous membranes, which may occur in three circumstances:Hypochlorite may combine with water, present in mucous membranes of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and respiratory tract, to form hypochlorous acid (Figure 1a). Hypochlorous acid rapidly forms hydrochloric acid and free oxygen radicals. Hydrochloric acid and the free oxygen radicals can cause injury by disrupting cellular proteins leading to cytotoxic injury [12–15].Hypochlorite may react with ammonia-based products, such as cleaners, or nitrogenous waste, particularly prevalent in public swimming pools, to form chloramine gas (Figure 1b). Inhaled chloramine reacts with moisture in the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract to liberate ammonia, hydrochloric acid, and free radicals [16], which can produce acute irritation in the respiratory tract or recurrent attacks of asthma in those occupationally exposed [17]. At high concentrations, these agents may cause corrosive effects resulting in cellular injuries including chemical pneumonitis and edema.Hypochlorite releases chlorine when mixed with an acid, such as an acid-based cleaner (Figure 1c). The release of this gas depends on the pH and, to a lesser extent, the concentration of hypochlorite; for example, chlorine liberation is most significant with acidic solutions below pH 2.4 [1]. Chlorine can cause damage to moist tissues by reacting with water to form hydrochloric and hypochlorous acids. Hypochlorous acid rapidly breaks down to hydrochloric acid and nascent oxygen, which can generate oxygen free radicals. These products can disrupt cellular proteins and cause cytotoxic damage to the cells of the respiratory tract. Due to its small molecular size and its moderate water solubility, a substantial amount of chlorine may escape dissolution in the moist upper airways, resulting in the entire respiratory tract being affected [14,15].
Related Knowledge Centers
- Ammonia
- Carbon Tetrachloride
- Chemical Compound
- Disinfectant
- Dichloramine
- Nitrogen Trichloride
- Chlorine
- Water Chlorination
- Organochlorine Chemistry
- Chloroform