Stimulants
Clete A. Kushida in Sleep Deprivation, 2004
Typically, the effects of dextroamphetamine on mood and motivation are positive and can be summarized as increased euphoria, exhilaration, energy, talkativeness, mental capacity, and desire for work, while the negative effects are increased restlessness and anxiety (100). Smith and Davis (177), confirm these effects, but go on to suggest there might also be a tendency toward increased end-of-day depression with amphetamine, although this has not been confirmed statistically. Nash (184) reported that 10 mg of sustained-release dextroamphetamine improved subjects’ evaluations of their abstract-reasoning performance and their subjective ratings of feeling “fresh and alive.” Cameron et al. (185) combined data across several studies and found that Benzedrine (usually 10 mg) and Dexedrine (5 mg) made subjects feel “more optimistic, friendly, energetic, talkative, decisive, egotistic, keyed-up, and light-headed” while simultaneously feeling “less drowsy, languid, bored, dissatisfied, depressed, and grouchy” (p. 118). Smith and Davis (177) found that 10- and 20-mg doses of dextroamphetamine increased ratings of vigor, talkativeness, friendliness, and anxiousness, while only the 20-mg dose increased ratings of confidence, euphoria, and speeding. Studies of sleep-deprived volunteers are consistent with many of the above findings in that dex-troamphetamine has been observed to improve ratings on dimensions such as vigor, alertness, energy, and talkativeness, while reducing feelings of fatigue, confusion, and sleepiness (183,186).
Pharmacological Properties and Neurophsysiological Effects of Caffeine
Barry D. Smith, Uma Gupta, B.S. Gupta in Caffeine and Activation Theory, 2006
Caffeine has been shown to act as a mild reinforcer (i.e., maintaining its selfadministration or being preferentially chosen over placebo)—although not consistently—in humans and animals (Griffiths & Mumford, 1996). At abrupt cessation, caffeine induces a withdrawal syndrome in a subset of sensitive individuals, about 11 to 22% of the population (Dews, O’Brien, & Bergman, 2002). This syndrome is mostly characterized by headaches, feelings of weakness, impaired concentration, fatigue, irritability, and withdrawal feelings (Griffiths et al., 1990; for review, see Nehlig, 1999, 2004). These symptoms usually start 12 to 24 h after caffeine cessation and reach a peak after 20 to 48 h. They never occur when caffeine consumption is progressively decreased. Therefore, the possible physical dependence on the methyxanthine has been considered for about two decades (Griffiths et al., 1990; Griffiths & Mumford, 1995, 1996; Griffiths & Woodson, 1988b; Holtzman, 1990; Strain, Mumford, Silverman, & Griffiths, 1994), but appears quite low compared to common drugs of abuse such as cocaine, amphetamine, morphine, and nicotine.
Stimulants
G. Hussein Rassool in Alcohol and Drug Misuse, 2017
The name “Amphetamine” is derived from its chemical name: alpha-methylphenethylamine. Their chemical properties of synthetic amphetamine, dextroamphetamine and methamphetamine and actions are very similar. However, natural amphetamine and methamphetamine compounds have been found in Acacia species in Texas, US (Clement et al. 1997 1998). Amphetamine was first synthesised in 1887 by Lazar Edeleanu at the University of Berlin and was first marketed in the 1930’s as Benzedrine in an over-the-counter inhaler to treat nasal congestion. During World War II, amphetamine was widely used to combat fatigue and increase alertness in soldiers.
Evidence-based prescribing of medications for ADHD: where are we in 2023?
Published in Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy, 2023
Since the study published by Bradley [5] in 1937 reporting the beneficial effects of an amphetamine compound (benzedrine) on ADHD symptoms in children, and the approval of methylphenidate by the FDA in 1955, a large number of randomized controlled trials, observational investigations, and meta-analyses of such studies have been published. Indeed, ADHD and its pharmacological treatment are among the most investigated topics in child and adolescent psychiatry [6]. This body of evidence informs our knowledge on the clinical pharmacology of ADHD. This review summarizes the currently available key evidence that can potentially inform each step related to the prescription of ADHD medications in clinical practice, from the initial selection of the most appropriate agent to the follow-up of a stabilized regimen, highlighting the gaps and needs in terms of evidence base. This will be preceded by an introductory section on the evidence related to prescription rates of ADHD medications in the past decades, which should be essential knowledge for any prescriber in the field.
Learning Approaches and Attitudes Toward Cognitive Enhancers in UK University Students
Published in Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 2020
Paula Adamopoulos, Hazel Ho, Genevieve Sykes, Peter Szekely, Eleanor J. Dommett
A cognitive enhancer (CE), often referred to as a “smart drug”, can be defined as a prescription drug taken by individuals, either without a prescription or at a dose exceeding that which is prescribed, to improve cognitive functions such as concentration and memory (Hildt 2013). Such drugs were originally designed to treat a range of disorders including Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy (Sahakian and Morein-Zamir 2015) and include methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), amphetamine (Adderall), and modafinil (Provigil). Although developed to meet a clinical need, they are increasingly being used by healthy individuals, even though questions remain around their ability to enhance cognition in non-clinical populations (Cropsey et al. 2017; Finger, da Silva, and Falavigna 2013; Repantis et al. 2010; Sahakian and Morein-Zamir 2015). One population for whom CE use is thought to be particularly prevalent is university students (Greely et al. 2008; Sahakian and Morein-Zamir 2007, 2015; Smith and Farah 2011) where prevalence has been reported to be as high as 35% (Smith and Farah 2011).
Metabolism of the areca alkaloids – toxic and psychoactive constituents of the areca (betel) nut
Published in Drug Metabolism Reviews, 2022
AN is the fourth-most self-administered psychoactive substance abused worldwide, only after tobacco, alcohol, and caffeine (Garg et al. 2014). Chewing of AN produces euphoria, central nervous system (CNS) stimulation, vertigo, a warming sensation of the body, enhanced postprandial satisfaction, and salivation (Chu 2002). Users attempting to quit manifest significant withdrawal symptoms including insomnia, mood swings, paranoia, anxiety, and poor concentration (Garg et al. 2014). The severity of dependence has been likened to nicotine (Papke et al. 2015) and amphetamine use (Winstock 2002; Humans IWGotEoCRt 2004). AN use has been speculated as a gateway for tobacco use (Chandra and Mulla 2007; Rajan et al. 2007). In fact, AN abuse is one of the least studied addictions, prompting some to label it as an orphan addiction (Little and Papke 2015).
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