Blinking and Looking: An Eye-Tracking Approach to Studying Cognitive Processing Differences in Individuals with Speech, Language, and Communication Disorders
Stavros Hatzopoulos, Andrea Ciorba, Mark Krumm in Advances in Audiology and Hearing Science, 2020
Pupillometry and blinking behaviors can be characterized as non-volitional, exogenous measures of eye behavior; these are also thought to reflect aspects of cognitive effort and decision making in response to stimuli/demand. Eye-blinking serves as the physiological function of hydrating the eyes, but blinks have also been found to occur more and less often than necessary for hydration (Nakano, 2015). Some studies have found that non-volitional eye blinking also reflect cognitive effort use to process stimuli (Nakano, 2005; Pivik and Dykmann, 2004; Van Orden et al., 2000). That is, when engaging in a cognitively effortful task, one is less likely to blink—possibly because it allows the eyes to recruit a continuous flow of visual information, because information is lost when a blink occurs. There are three types of blinking behaviors that can be measured: endogenous spontaneous blinks (that are thought to vary as a function of task demand and stimulus salience), exogenous blinking (volitional and intrinsically driven based on internal state), attentional blinks (that vary based on the timing of presentation of distractor stimuli), and physiological blinking (e.g., for hydration or to remove a foreign object). Endogenous, spontaneous blinks are non-volitional where attentional blinks and physiological blinking are thought to reflect volitional processes.
Anatomy of the Forehead and Periocular Region
Neil S. Sadick in Illustrated Manual of Injectable Fillers, 2020
The orbicularis oculi muscle arises medially from the frontal process of the maxilla, lacrimal bone, medial palpebral ligament, and nasal process of the frontal bone. It then extends laterally to insert into the subcutaneous tissue at the lateral part of the orbit (Figure 4.2). The orbicularis oculi is a sphincter of muscle responsible for eye closure. It is divided into three portions: orbital, palpebral, and tarsal. The orbital portion is the thickest, most peripheral portion. The palpebral portion travels from the medial canthal tendon to the lateral canthal tendon immediately underneath the skin of the superior and inferior eyelids. The tarsal portion arises from the posterior lacrimal crest, behind the lacrimal sac, and travels laterally, superficial to the tarsal plate, to insert into the lateral canthal tendon. The palpebral and tarsal portions act involuntarily. They are responsible for the involuntary closure of the eyelids such as during blinking. They also form a significant part of the lacrimal pump system. The orbital portion of the orbicularis is a voluntary muscle. Its contraction results in tight closure of the eyelids, drawing the eyebrows inferiorly and creating rhytides over the lateral portion of the orbit, often called crow’s feet. The action of the orbicularis oculi contributes significantly to facial expression and may be the most important source of nonverbal communication: as we all know, “the eyes are the window to the soul.” Through movement of the eyelids, one can express many emotions, such as pain, anger, fear, and surprise.
The lives of others
Jennifer Corns in The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Pain, 2017
By thinking of the mind in terms of representation, we can see how different physical systems perform similar representational functions, and we can differentiate mental capacities according to their distinct functions. In relation to pain, function accounts for the relations between nociceptive response, negative affect, and conscious hurtfulness in terms of increasingly articulated representations of damage. Even the most basic stimulus–response reflex counts as mental if the system has the function of responding adaptively to stimuli.3 For example, eye blinks represent danger to the eye, because the successful response to danger explains why genes that contribute to promoting the eye-blink reflex have been reproduced. Eye blinks are also selective; they do not occur in response to stimuli like variations in color or shape, for example. Yet they can misrepresent and so occur in the absence of potential damage. In fact, most eye blinks fail to serve their proper function, because the cost of blinking is so low relative to the risk of damage.
Diagnostic tests in dry eye
Published in Expert Review of Ophthalmology, 2019
Amy Kloosterboer, Harrison Isaac Dermer, Anat Galor
Next, eyelid position and blink rate are evaluated. Blinking is an important action that serves to evenly distribute the tear film over the ocular surface. The normal blink rate ranges between approximately 13 to 15 per minute[23]. A reduced blink rate can promote tear evaporation, and lead to signs of DE. For example, individuals with Parkinson’s disease have a slow blink rate with frequent disruptions in their ocular surface [24,25]. Failure of the eyelids to fully close can also lead to exposure of the cornea, tear dysfunction, and ocular surface compromise[26]. This may be observed in the clinic while the patient is in a seated position or may need to be elicited by leaning the patient back to look for evidence of nocturnal lagophthalmos. The physician should also note any scleral show, ectropion, or entropion when the eyes are in primary position. After noting resting abnormalities, eyelid testing proceeds by asking the patient to softly close their eyes, followed by a forceful contraction, evaluating muscle strength and symmetry, and looking for elicited eyelid abnormalities, such as spastic entropion. Eyelid laxity can be tested by pulling the eyelid inferiorly to see if they ‘snap back’ into position (Figure 2). The skin over the eyebrow is then pulled up to see if the upper eyelids flip over, a sign of upper eyelid laxity. Eyelid abnormalities can interfere with normal tear film function and contribute to DE.
The Hawthorne Effect in Eye-blinking: Awareness that One’s Blinks are Being Counted Alters Blink Behavior
Published in Current Eye Research, 2020
Nina Shaafi Kabiri, Chris Brooks, Tom Comery, Michael Erb Kelley, Pete Fried, Jaspreet Bhangu, Kevin Thomas
In order to best leverage blink behavior as a biomarker or clinical outcome, it is essential to understand how its functions may be altered by environmental, cognitive, or pathological factors. Anatomically, blinking is crucial to maintaining corneal integrity through spreading tear film across the eyeball, removing irritants, and blocking dangerous stimuli (e.g., light, dust, etc.).14 Behaviorally, the rate of blinking is affected by internal emotional states15, cognitive processes such as attention and arousal16, and may be involved in non-verbal communication.17 Neurologically, blinks are widely believed to be partially dependent on dopamine transmission.1 Although recent fluorodopa positron emission topography (FDOPA-PET) evidence has challenged this assertion18, numerous diseases that modify dopaminergic concentration and transmission also alter one’s spontaneous eye-blink rate (SEBR) – Hypodopaminergic conditions such as Parkinson’s disease experience decreased SEBR19, where-as SEBR is increased in hyperdopaminergic conditions like schizophrenia20 and Huntington’s disease.21
Ocular surface predisposing factors for digital display-induced dry eye
Published in Clinical and Experimental Optometry, 2023
Cristian Talens-Estarelles, José Vicente García-Marqués, Alejandro Cerviño, Santiago García-Lázaro
Furthermore, in the present study tear volume significantly increased with computer use. Conversely, some authors reported significantly lower tear meniscus height and Schirmer test results in long-term office workers while others obtained no difference.7,11,31 Blinking keeps the eye surface humid and hydrated by favouring the secretion of tears and spreading them through the ocular surface.32,33 Nielsen et al.34 reported a compensatory burst of blinks right after cessation of an active digital display task. Authors attributed this phenomenon to compensation for the oppression of blinking during the digital display task and therefore as a wetting process secondary to ocular surface disturbance, which could be behind the greater post-task tear volume obtained in the present study.
Related Knowledge Centers
- Autonomic Nervous System
- Conjunctiva
- Cornea
- Eye
- Eyelid
- Levator Palpebrae Superioris Muscle
- Orbicularis Oculi Muscle
- Tears
- Wink
- Body Language