Outdoor Emissions
William J. Rea, Kalpana D. Patel in Reversibility of Chronic Disease and Hypersensitivity, Volume 4, 2017
The major sources of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in outdoor air are coal and oil combustion, gas-fired transportation, and nitrogen fertilizers. For indoor air, these pollutants are generated in kerosene heaters, gas stoves, gas heaters, and arc welding. Nitric oxide (NO) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are quickly converted to nitrogen dioxide at concentrations below 50 ppm. Therefore, high concentrations of NO may occur with low levels of NO2, and as their levels drop, nitrogen dioxide appears. The main health effect of NO is that it forms methemoglobin and subsequently acts on the nervous system. Also in humans, it can be generated naturally and can create a toxic substance peroxynitrite. Animal experimentation indicates that NO is about one-fifth as toxic as NO2 (assuming minimal contamination with NOx and no synergistic action, which may be quite unrealistic). Again, it should be emphasized that the data are limited, and levels may need to be much less due to synergisms and increased total load. (For more data, see Chapter 2.)
Avoiding Risky Substances and Environmental Exposures
Michelle Tollefson, Nancy Eriksen, Neha Pathak in Improving Women's Health Across the Lifespan, 2021
The Health Effects Institute estimated that air pollution was responsible for 476,000 deaths of newborns during their first month of life.8 Results from the Children’s Health Study identified that children aged 10–18 years that resided in areas with the highest PM levels in the cohort were approximately five times more likely to have low forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1), indicating adverse adolescent lung development.9 Children exposed to high levels of PM are more likely to develop chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) as adults.10 Children exposed to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) have demonstrated increased lower respiratory symptoms (shortness of breath with wheezing, chronic wheezing, chronic coughing, chronic phlegm, or bronchitis), with a stronger association being demonstrated in girls.11 Asthma onset12, asthma exacerbations,13 and virus-induced asthma exacerbations14 are additional outcomes children face with NO2 exposure. Children living in inner city environments also demonstrated decreased lung function with increased 5-day average concentrations of NO2, sulfur dioxide, and PM2.5.15 In addition, NO2’s respiratory threats to children are also significantly associated with school absences.15,16
Diagnosis and Treatment of Inhalation Injury in Burn Patients
Jacob Loke in Pathophysiology and Treatment of Inhalation Injuries, 2020
Exposure to these irritant gases produces pulmonary edema due to both alveolar epithelial cell damage (Dowell et al., 1971) and endothelial cell damage that results in an increased capillary permeability (Sherwin and Richters, 1971). The exposure to nitrogen dioxide, in addition, impairs alveolar macrophage function, which has obvious clinical implications as related to the later development of pneumonia (Sherwin and Richters, 1971). The burning of sulfur-containing products yields sulfur dioxide, a strong mucous membrane irritant. The pyrolysis of cellulosics, wood, paper, and cotton produces acrolein, a potent mucosal irritant, inhalation of which by human volunteers in concentrations as low as 0.8 parts per million (ppm) produced intense lacrimation and irritation of all exposed mucous membranes (Sim and Pattle, 1957). Exposure of dogs to wood smoke, a rich source of acrolein, lead to pulmonary congestion and edema and death (Zikria et al., 1972b). Burning of polyvinyl chloride, a material used commonly to insulate wires and in upholstery and bedding, produces hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride, chlorine, phosgene, benzene, toluene, xylene, and naphthalene (Bowes, 1974; Terrill et al., 1978). These products are strong pulmonary toxicants in low concentrations and lethal when inhaled in sufficient doses. The symptoms of pulmonary involvement, such as dyspnea, cyanosis, and acute respiratory failure, may be delayed in onset for up to 6 hr after exposure to polyvinyl chloride fumes (Dyer and Esch, 1976).
The rising of allergic respiratory diseases in a changing world: from climate change to migration
Published in Expert Review of Respiratory Medicine, 2020
Benedetta Biagioni, Isabella Annesi-Maesano, Gennaro D’Amato, Lorenzo Cecchi
The evidence that air pollution can cause exacerbations of preexisting asthma is supported by studies and data accumulating for several decades. Nitrogen dioxide, ozone and particulate matter, have been significantly associated with increased asthma exacerbations and higher asthma medication intake [31]. Particulate Matter (PM) is a ubiquitous atmospheric aerosol with both anthropogenic and natural sources that can be classified on the basis of its aerodynamic diameter in PM10 or PM2.5, the latter being also called fine particles. PM2.5 can easily penetrate deeply into bronchial tree, affecting distal airways. Nitrogen oxides gases, such as nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), are mainly produced from the reaction between nitrogen and oxygen during combustion fuels and are a significant source of air pollution in areas of high motor vehicle traffic.
Effects of sulfur dioxide, ozone, and ambient air pollution on lung histopathology, oxidative-stress biomarkers, and apoptosis-related gene expressions in rats
Published in Experimental Lung Research, 2022
Sorayya Kheirouri, Dariush Shanehbandi, Monireh Khordadmehr, Mohammad Alizadeh, Fateme Eskandari Vaezi, Razieh Musapour Sultan Abad, Mehran Mesgari-Abbasi
AAP contains a dynamic and complex mixture of several kinds of harmful contaminants. Primary air pollutants are particulate matter2.5 (PM2.5) and PM10, sulfur dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and lead. PM2.5 and PM10 are particles with sizes not exceeding 2.5 and 10 microns, respectively. PMs contain elemental or organic carbons, nitrates, sulfates and metals, as well as other constituents. Primary PM is mainly generated by fuel combustion and re-suspended crustal dust and organic matter, while, secondary PMs are formed by photo-chemical reactions of PMs in the atmosphere, with the nucleation of pollutant gases such as sulfur dioxide and ammonium nitrate.1,3,4 Sulfur dioxide, as a sharp odor and colorless gas, is mainly produced from the burning of sulfur-containing fossil fuels and the smelting of sulfur-containing mineral ores for power generation and heating. Findings of recent years indicate that much lower than previously believed levels of sulfur dioxide can affect human health.4 It is thought that reducing sulfur dioxide concentrations can likely decrease effects of co-pollutants.4 Ozone is mainly produced by the photochemical reaction of pollutants such as NOx from industrial emissions and motor vehicles. Thus, the highest levels of ozone pollution are expected during sunny weather periods.4
Ethical Dilemmas in Protecting Susceptible Subpopulations From Environmental Health Risks: Liberty, Utility, Fairness, and Accountability for Reasonableness
Published in The American Journal of Bioethics, 2018
David B. Resnik, D. Robert MacDougall, Elise M. Smith
Several U.S. laws provide additional protections for susceptible subpopulations. For example, the Clean Air Act (1990) requires the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to provide additional protections for susceptible subpopulations, including children, asthmatics, and the elderly, when establishing ambient air quality standards (Marchant 2008). The EPA follows this law by establishing ambient air quality standards for ozone, particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide that incorporate protections for susceptible subpopulations (Environmental Protection Agency 2016b). The Food Quality Protection Act (1996) includes a 10-fold safety factor for acceptable pesticide residues on foods to provide additional protections for children (Resnik 2012). An amendment to the Toxic Substances Control Act (1976), the Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act (2016), includes additional safety protections for subpopulations that are susceptible to exposures to toxic chemicals, including children and pregnant women (Schmidt 2016). Aside from these legal mandates, the EPA has affirmed its commitment, as a matter of public policy, to drafting environmental regulations and guidelines with an eye toward protecting susceptible subpopulations (Environmental Protection Agency 2016a).
Related Knowledge Centers
- Air Pollution
- Chemical Compound
- Chemical Equilibrium
- Dimerization
- Nitric Acid
- Nitrogen Oxide
- Ozone
- Nitrogen
- Median Lethal Dose
- Energy Level